Accommodation Collections

Some consider ensuring equal access to postsecondary education simply the right thing to do. Others are merely responsive to legal mandates. In either case, the federal government has made it clear that postsecondary institutions must provide reasonable accommodations to otherwise qualified students with disabilities to ensure access to educational opportunities. Learn more about these laws below:

• Americans with Disabilities Act
• Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973
• Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)

Each student with a disability has unique needs. The presence of a disability may or may not affect the participation of a student in your class. Disabilities may affect sight, hearing, mobility, learning, health, mental health, organizing, concentration, memory, social skills, and other aspects of life.

Reasonable accommodations must be provided to eligible students with disabilities in order for them to access essential course content and essential learning activities. Types of academic coursework to which students with disabilities need access include lectures, written assignments, field or lab work, exams, class discussions, Internet research, and/or participation in class activities.

Some examples of reasonable accommodations in postsecondary settings include sign language interpreters, preferential seating, notetakers, scribes, flexible attendance requirements, test modifications, and classes in accessible locations. Some students with disabilities require the same accommodations for all courses. Other students may need a range of accommodations for various lecture, lab, discussion, and fieldwork activities. Flexibility and effective communication between students, disabled student services staff, and instructors are key to implementing successful accommodations.

Confidentiality

It is important to remember that information about a student's disability should usually be kept confidential. Even if a student has disclosed a disability to you as his instructor or to other officials of the institution, this personal information should not be shared with others without his permission. Typically, the process by which information about a disability is shared is as follows:

• The student brings documentation about the disability to the disabled student services office on campus. He discusses appropriate accommodations with staff.
• Confidentiality is maintained by the disabled student service office on campus unless the student provides written permission to release the information.
• If the student agrees that specific information can be disclosed to his instructor, the disabled student services staff shares information and approved accommodations; sometimes reasonable accommodations for specific class activities are determined in consultation with the instructor.

The best accommodations are tailored to the individual and often develop from a cooperative relationship between the faculty member, the student, and staff of the campus disabled student services office.

Examples

What types of accommodations might help the following students in the average lecture?

1. A student with low vision may benefit from large print or electronic copies of your handouts, a notetaker, and/or preferential seating. It is also helpful to use large text on presentation slides and/or write clearly and in large print on whiteboards.
2. A student with a mobility disability that affects their hands may need a notetaker, a test scribe, computer access, or recording options.
3. A student with a broken leg may temporarily need extra time to arrive for class, campus transportation, and/or preferential seating.
4. A student with an undocumented learning disability may not be able to use your campus' Disability Resources for Students (DRS), depending on your school's policies. Documentation needs can sometimes create barriers to access. This is why universal design can help a wide variety of students, whether they go through DRS or not. Universal design options in this case may include offering multiple methods for students to learn the same information (lecture, reading, resources, projects, etc) as well as accepting multiple methods for students to showcase their knowledge (test, presentation, essay, projects, etc).

A "person with a disability" means "any person who has a physical or mental impairment which substantially limits one or more major life activities including walking, seeing, hearing, speaking, breathing, learning, and working; has a record of such impairment; or is regarded as having such an impairment."

Examples of disabilities that can impact a student in postsecondary education include, but are not limited to, AIDS, cancer, cerebral palsy, diabetes, epilepsy, head injuries, hearing disability, learning disabilities, loss of limbs, multiple sclerosis, muscular dystrophy, mental health disorders, speech disabilities, spinal cord injuries, and visual disabilities.

Many of the conditions listed may affect individuals' abilities to perform specific life tasks. Some of these conditions are visible, while other conditions, such as learning or mental health disabilities, are "invisible." Individuals with the same diagnosis or label may present a range of symptoms and functional differences. For example, an individual with cerebral palsy may need to use a wheelchair, may be unable to speak, and may require a personal assistant for self care. Another person with cerebral palsy may walk with a cane and manage all personal care tasks and communication independently. Likewise, an individual with a learning disability may have difficulties with reading, writing, math and/or processing verbal information. Clearly, each individual has unique needs in postsecondary education settings. In all cases, the institution has a responsibility to provide program access to qualified students with disabilities.

The design of a product or environment that is flexible and meets the needs of a wide range of users can eliminate or minimize the need for specific accommodations for a person with a disability. In contrast, a mismatch between the individual with a disability and the environment, attitudes, or society can create or exacerbate barriers. For example, an individual with a mobility disability may fully participate in most life activities if the buildings, transportation, and facilities he uses are wheelchair accessible. However, when he cannot accept a job or attend a class because the work site or classroom environment is inaccessible, he is being excluded as a consequence of an architectural barrier that prohibits access. Similarly, captioning on video recordings eliminate the need for an accommodation for a deaf student.

Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 prohibits discrimination against individuals with disabilities and mandates the provision of reasonable accommodations to ensure access to programs and services. Reasonable accommodations may include, but are not limited to, redesigning equipment, assigning aides, providing written communication in alternative formats, modifying tests, redesigning services to accessible locations, altering existing facilities, and building new facilities. Reasonable accommodations do not include personal devices such as hearing aids, wheelchairs, and glasses.

Students with disabilities who desire academic accommodations must register with the disability student services office and provide proper documentation of their disabilities. This office will determine the accommodations, if any, that are reasonable for the student. Many students with disabilities do not identify themselves as having a disability because they do not feel that they need academic accommodations. The need for accommodations depends on the students' abilities and the course requirements. Ultimately, a student with a disability requires alternative arrangements only when faced with a task that requires skill that her disability precludes.

Universal design is "the design of products and environments to be usable by all people, to the greatest extent possible, without the need for adaptation or specialized design." When designers apply universal design principles, their products and services meet the needs of potential users with a wide variety of characteristics. Universal design principles can be applied to many products and services, including instruction.

In terms of learning, universal design means the design of instructional materials and activities that makes the learning goals achievable by individuals with wide differences in their abilities to see, hear, speak, move, read, write, understand English, attend, organize, engage, and remember. Universal design for learning is achieved by means of flexible curricular materials and activities that provide alternatives for students with differing abilities. These alternatives are built into the instructional design and operating systems of educational materials-they are not added on after-the-fact. (Research Connections, Number 5, Fall 1999, p. 2, Council for Exceptional Children.)

Employing universal design principles in instruction does not eliminate the need for specific accommodations for students with disabilities. There will always be the need for some specific accommodations, such as sign language interpreters for students who are deaf. However, applying universal design concepts in course planning will assure full access to the content for most students and minimize the need for specific accommodations. For example, designing web resources in accessible formats as they are developed means that no re-development is necessary if a blind student enrolls in the class. Planning ahead can be less time-consuming in the long run. Letting all students have access to your class notes and assignments on an accessible Web site can eliminate the need for providing materials in alternative formats. See Universal Design for more information on universal design of instruction.

When designing classroom instruction or a distance learning class, strive to create a learning environment that allows all students, including a person who happens to have a characteristic that is termed "disability," to access the content of the course and fully participate in class activities. Universal design principles can apply to lectures, classroom discussions, group work, handouts, web-based instruction, fieldwork, and other academic activities.

Example

Which of the following is an example of universal design of instruction that benefits all students and might eliminate or reduce the need for accommodations for students with a disability? Choose a response.

1. Selecting fieldwork sites that are wheelchair accessible.
2. Providing a notetaker.
3. Making your class notes and outline available electronically.
4. A flexible attendance policy.
5. Requesting open-captioned videos.

Feedback on each response:

1. Yes. Selecting fieldwork sites that are wheelchair accessible can eliminate the need for alternative assignments or last minute modifications for some students with mobility disabilities.
2. No. A notetaker is an accommodation required by some students with disabilities.
3. Yes. This will provide greater access to your course materials and make it easier, for example, for students who are blind to transcribe information into Braille or use adaptive technology to read the text with speech output software.
4. No. This might be an appropriate accommodation for a student with a health disability. However, an attendance policy that it too flexible for too many people may become misused or problematic.
5. Yes. Open captioning is essentially the same as subtitling. It requires no special equipment. Many students can benefit from open captioning, including students with hearing disabilities, learning disabilities, and those for whom English is not their first language. 

Accommodating students with disabilities in higher education is a shared responsibility. Faculty, students, and disability services staff must work together to coordinate reasonable accommodations for students with disabilities who request support. Coordinated efforts and support from departmental, administrative, facilities, and other student service personnel can also enhance the overall accessibility of the postsecondary learning environment for students with disabilities.

Educators can contribute to greater academic and career success for the students they serve. Knowledge of legal issues, accommodation strategies, and campus resources for students with disabilities can facilitate this success. Studies show that faculty members who are familiar with accommodation strategies are better prepared to make arrangements to ensure that students with disabilities have an equal opportunity to participate in their programs. In addition, faculty and staff who have had interactions with students with disabilities generally have more positive attitudes about working with these students.

The disability student services office on your campus is a key resource when working with students with disabilities. It is typically the responsibility of disability students services staff to:

• maintain confidential records of the student's disability
• recommend and coordinate accommodations (e.g., sign language interpreters, Braille documents)
• arrange special equipment (e.g., assistive listening devices)
• provide other resources/referrals for students with disabilities (e.g., assistive technology specialists, testing centers, counseling)

Staff should also be able to answer questions and provide details about policies and procedures and legal and compliance issues related to meeting the needs of students with disabilities at your campus.

The student with a disability is the best source of information regarding her or his academic needs. Generally, students who require accommodations in postsecondary education are responsible for disclosing their disability and registering with the disability student services office following the procedures at their respective campus. Each student is also usually responsible for requesting accommodations with each instructor.

Not all students with disabilities need academic accommodations. Ultimately, a student with a disability requires alternative arrangements only when faced with a task that requires a skill that her disability precludes. If a student informs you that she has a disability and would like to arrange for academic accommodations, you may ask which course or program requirements are expected to be problematic and which solutions and campus resources have been identified to help minimize the problems.

Each student has his own unique needs. Some examples of academic accommodations include preferential seating, notetakers, assistive technology, sign language interpreters, audiobooks, and extended test-taking time. Many accommodations are simple, creative alternatives to common ways of doing things. The instructor and student may generate additional ideas based on individual needs and course requirements. Sometimes, an effective solution can be found by thinking creatively about how the learning environment could be modified.

Here are some general suggestions for modifying the learning environment to make your class more accessible:

• Add a statement to your syllabus inviting students who have disabilities to discuss their needs and accommodation strategies with you. An example of such a statement is, "If you have a documented disability and wish to discuss academic accommodations, please contact me as soon as possible."
• Select course materials early so that they can be procured in appropriate formats in a timely manner.
• Ask students about successful accommodations they have used in the past.
• Use materials which are available in an electronic format.
• Find alternative methods of administering tests and testing comprehension of a subject.
• Use the disability services available on your campus as a primary resource.

Faculty, administrators, students with disabilities and other key personnel can also work together to develop campus and departmental plans for improving the instructional climate and access for students with disabilities. If we continue to take time to think about how to make our programs and courses accessible to all students we'll be better prepared to overcome current and future academic challenges.

For more information on academic accommodations for specific disabilities or activities, see Accommodations. Consult Students with Disabilities Preparing for Postsecondary Education: Know Your Rights and Responsibilities for more information.

Computers are essential tools in all academic studies. They can enhance the independence, productivity, and capabilities of people including those with low vision, blindness, speech and hearing disabilities, learning disabilities, mobility, and health disabilities. Each of these disabilities poses challenges to accessing and using a standard computer and electronic resources. For example, a student who is blind is unable to read a computer screen display or standard printouts. A student with a spinal cord injury may not have the motor control and finger dexterity required to use a standard mouse and keyboard.

Access to computer-based technology for students with disabilities involves two major issues: access to the computers themselves and access to electronic resources such as word processors, spreadsheets, and websites.

Adaptive (or, assistive) hardware and software can facilitate computer access for people with disabilities. Adaptive technology solutions may involve simple, readily available adjustments such as using built-in access devices on standard computers, or they may require unique combinations of software and hardware such as those needed for voice or Braille output.

This page gives an overview of assistive technology that supports access to computers and electronic resources. For information related to the physical environment and facility access to computers, see Computer Labs. For information on developing accessible websites using principles of universal design, see Web Pages and Universal design.

Accommodations for Specific Disabilities

Accommodations for students presented below are organized by computer input, output, and documentation. Many accommodations require advance planning with the student and personnel with specialized skills.

Blindness

Most individuals who are blind can use a standard keyboard. Viewing standard screen displays and printed documents is problematic. Specialized voice and Braille output devices can translate text into synthesized voice and Braille output, respectively.

Input

• locator dots on the keyboard for commonly used keys

Output

• screen-reader software and speech output
• refreshable Braille displays that allow line-by-line translation of screen text into a Braille display area
• Braille embossers

Documentation

• electronic versions in an accessible format that can be used with screen readers and speech output or Braille

Low Vision

Most students with low vision can use standard keyboards. Special equipment or the use of built-in computer features can help modify screen displays and printer output.

Input

• large-print key labels and home row indicators

Output

• large monitors
• anti-glare screens
• screen and/or text enlargement software
• color and contrast adjustments
• speech output systems

Documentation

• electronic versions with text and/or screen-enlargement capabilities
• large-print versions

Learning Disabilities

Students with learning disabilities generally do not have difficulty accessing standard computer equipment. The availability of specialized software and technology has provided a range of products suitable for educational accommodations that support reading, writing, and organizational skills.

Input

• word processors with grammar and spell checkers
• word processors with outlining and highlighting capabilities
• word prediction software
• phonetic spelling software which can render phonetic spelling into correctly spelled words
• speech recognition products that allows people to dictate assignments as well as navigate the Internet using voice commands
• concept mapping software that allows for visual representations of ideas and concepts, which can be used as a structure for starting and organizing poetry, term papers, resumes, schedules, and computer programs

Output

• text- or screen-enlargement on computer displays
• alternative color combinations and contrasts
• screen-reader software and speech output

Documentation

• large-print versions
• speech output
• electronic versions with text- or screen-enlargement capabilities

Speech and Hearing Disabilities

Hearing and speech disabilities alone generally do not interfere with computer access. Email can be used to facilitate communication between students and instructors.

Input

• Students with speech or hearing disabilities generally do not have difficulty accessing a standard computer.

Output

• Alternatives to audio output can be provided. For example, a computer that uses a tone to indicate an error can be programmed to flash the screen using options in the operating system. Speech output can be captioned.
• Computer-based communication devices can act as a substitute for voices and provide a compensatory tool for students who cannot communicate verbally.

Documentation

• Individuals with speech or hearing disabilities generally do not have difficulty with standard screen displays or written documentation.

Mobility Disabilities

The designs of basic computers and computer workstations are not necessarily accessible to individuals with mobility disabilities. For example, it is important to ensure that the student who uses a wheelchair can access the computer workstation. Using the standard mouse and keyboard for input can be difficult or impossible due to limited upper extremity function.

Input

• accessible on/off switches
• flexible positioning or mounting of keyboards, monitors, etc.
• software utilities that consolidate multiple keystrokes
• mouth sticks, head sticks, or other pointing devices
• keyguards
• modified keyboards (e.g., expanded, mini, or one-handed)
• trackballs or other input devices as alternatives to mice
• keyboard emulation with specialized switches that allow the use of scanning or Morse code input
• speech input
• word prediction software

Output

• Individuals with mobility impairments generally do not have difficulty with computer visual and audio output.

Documentation

• Individuals with mobility impairments generally do not have difficulty with standard screen displays or written documentation.

Check Your Understanding

Consider the following situation. A student with a high-level spinal cord injury who has no functional use of his hands needs to research Internet resources for a research paper. Which accommodations would help him access the computer and Web-based resources successfully and efficiently? Choose a response.

1. Ensure that the student has an adjustable workstation so he can adequately see the monitor and access the computer hardware.
2. Provide a computer with speech input.
3. Assign a partner to work with the student and help with the research.
4. Provide word prediction software and an adaptive input device such as a keyboard with keyguard or on-screen keyboard with head control.

Feedback on Responses:

1. Ensure that the student has an adjustable workstation so he can adequately see the monitor and access the computer hardware.
   Assuring physical access to the computer is an important first step, however, with a hand function disability, additional assistive technology is likely needed for him to gain full access to the keyboard.
2. Provide a computer with speech input.
   Speech input may be an appropriate accommodation, allowing access to computer software and on-line research by talking through the process instead of using a keyboard. Library staff could provide assistance in retrieving printed documents.
3. Assign a partner to work with the student and help with the research.
   This may work in some situations as an accommodation, depending on the nature, length, and goals of the assignment. However, it is best to provide a solution that maximizes independent access to materials.
4. Provide word prediction software and an adaptive input device such as a keyboard with keyguard or on-screen keyboard with head control.
   This system of access works well for some students with physical disabilities. Word prediction software predicts whole words from word fragments. Similarly, macro software which expands abbreviations can reduce the need to memorize keyboard commands and can ease the entry of commonly-keyed text.

Acknowledgement

The content of this web page was developed from Burgstahler, S. (2012). Working Together: People with Disabilities and Computer Technology. Seattle: UW.

by Sheryl Burgstahler, Ph.D.

(Adapted from the publication Equal Access: Universal Design of Computer Labs.)

As increasing numbers of people with disabilities pursue educational opportunities that require computer use, accessibility of computing facilities is critical. The vision is simply equal access. Everyone who needs to use your lab should be able to do so comfortably.

To make your lab accessible, employ principles of universal design (UD). Universal design means that rather than designing your facilities and services for the average user, it is designed for people with a broad range of abilities, disabilities, ages, reading levels, learning styles, cultures, and other characteristics. Keep in mind that individuals using your lab may have learning disabilities or visual, speech, hearing, and mobility disabilities. Preparing your program to be accessible to them will minimize the need for special accommodations for those who use your services and for future employees as well. Make sure everyone

• feels welcome,
• can get to the facility and maneuver within it,
• is able to access materials and electronic resources, and
• can make use of equipment and software.

Train staff to support people with disabilities. Have a plan in place to respond to specific accommodation requests in a timely manner.

Guidelines and Example

The following questions can guide you in making your computer lab universally accessible. Your disabled student services office may also be able to assist you in increasing the accessibility of your unit. This content does not provide legal advice. Consult your campus legal counsel or ADA/504 compliance officer regarding relevant legal issues. Consultation with your regional Office for Civil Rights (OCR) can also help clarify issues.

First Steps

To begin the process of making your campus lab accessible to everyone, take the following steps.

1. Include students with disabilities in planning and evaluating lab products and services.
2. Develop policies and procedures that ensure access to lab facilities, computers, and electronic resources for people with disabilities. Require that accessibility be considered in the procurement process.
3. Ensure that the facility and services are wheelchair-accessible and publications can be reached from a seated position.
4. In key lab documents, include a statement about your commitment to universal access and procedures for requesting disability-related accommodations.
5. Make signs with high color contrast and large print.
6. Make key documents available in formats accessible to those who have low vision and those who are blind (e.g., large print, Braille, electronic).
7. Although a lab cannot be expected to have specialized equipment for every type of disability on hand, staff should make equipment available that they anticipate will be most often used and/or that is available at relatively low cost. This might include
   • an adjustable table for each type of workstation in your lab;
   • a wrist rest and forearm rest;
   • a trackball;
   • software to modify keyboard response, such as sticky keys, repeat rate, and keystroke delay;
   • software to enlarge screen images, along with a large monitor;
   • large-print keytop labels; and
   • web resources that adhere to accessibility standards or guidelines adopted by the lab.
8. Once a lab is established and serves a large number of users, consider adding
   • text-to-speech software;
   • scanner and optical character recognition (OCR) software;
   • CCTV to enlarge printed documentation;
   • Braille translation software and printer;
   • hearing protectors;
   • keyboard guards to assist those who have limited fine motor skills;
   • alternative keyboards, mini-keyboards, or extended keyboards for users with mobility disabilities;
   • speech input software; and
   • one-handed keyboards or "keyboard layout" software.
9. Develop a procedure to ensure quick responses to requests for adaptive technology that you do not currently have available or for other disability-related accommodations.
10. Train staff on available accessible products in the lab, on appropriate communication, and on procedures for addressing requests for accommodation. Include accessibility issues in all training offered in the lab.
11. Include people with disabilities when addressing accessibility in periodic lab evaluations.

Planning, Policies, and Evaluation

Consider diversity issues as you plan and evaluate your computer lab.

• Are people with disabilities, racial and ethnic minorities, students with diverse gender identities and sexual orientations, young and old students, and other groups represented on your staff, faculty, and student body in numbers proportional to those of the whole campus or community?
• Are people with disabilities, racial and ethnic minorities, students with diverse gender identities and sexual orientations, young and old students, and other groups included in lab planning and review processes and advisory committees in numbers proportional to those of the whole campus or community?
• Do you have policies and procedures that ensure access to facilities, printed materials, computers, and electronic resources for people with disabilities?
• Do policies and procedures require that accessibility be considered in the procurement process for software and other information technology? (See the federal government's Section 508 standards.)
• Do you have a procedure to ensure a timely response to requests for disability-related accommodations?
• Are disability-related access issues addressed in your evaluation methods?

Physical Environment

Ensure physical access, comfort, and safety within an environment that is welcoming to visitors with a variety of abilities, racial and ethnic backgrounds, genders, and ages.

• Are there parking areas, pathways, and entrances to the building that are wheelchair-accessible and clearly identified?
• Are all levels of the facility connected via an accessible route of travel?
• Are there ample high-color-contrast, large-print directional signs to and throughout the lab? Is Braille signage available when appropriate?
• Do elevators have both auditory and visual signals for floors? Are elevator controls accessible from a seated position and available in large print and Braille or raised notation?
• Are wheelchair-accessible and child-friendly restrooms with well-marked signs available in or near the lab?
• Is at least part of a service counter or desk at a height accessible from a seated position?
• Are aisles wide and clear of obstructions for wheelchair users who have mobility or visual disabilities?
• Is lighting adjustable by the individual?
• Are window blinds available to reduce glare, especially on computer screens?
• Are there quiet work or meeting areas where noise and other distractions are minimized? Are facility rules in place (e.g., no cell phone use) to minimize noise?
• Can at least one public telephone be reached from a seated position?
• Are telecommunication devices for the deaf (TTY/TDD) available?

Consult the ADA Checklist for Readily Achievable Barrier Removal for more suggestions.

Lab Staff

Make sure staff are prepared to work with all students.

• Are staff members familiar with the availability and use of TTY/TDD, the Telecommunications Relay Service, assistive technology, and alternate document formats?
• Do staff members know how to respond to requests for disability-related accommodations, such as sign language interpreters?
• Are all staff members aware of issues related to communicating with students of different characteristics regarding race and ethnicity, age, and disability? (See Communication Hints).
• Do staff members have ready access to a list of on- and/or off-campus resources for students with disabilities?
• Is the Webmaster knowledgeable about accessible web design?

Information Resources/Technology

Ensure that lab publications and websites welcome a diverse group and that information is accessible to everyone.

• Do pictures in your publications and website include people with diverse characteristics with respect to race, gender, age, and disability?
• In key publications, do you include a statement about your commitment to universal access and procedures for requesting disability-related accommodations? For example, you could include the following statement: "Our goal is to make all materials and services accessible. Please inform staff of accessibility barriers you encounter and request accommodations that will make activities and information resources accessible to you."
• Are all printed software and hardware documentation and other publications available (immediately or in a timely manner) in alternate formats such as Braille, large print, and electronic text?
• Are printed materials within easy reach from a variety of heights and without furniture blocking access?
• Do electronic resources, including web pages, adhere to accessibility guidelines or standards adopted by your institution or your specific project or funding source? Section 508 Standards for Accessible Electronic and Information Technology and the World Wide Web Consortium's Web Content Accessibility Guidelines are most commonly used. For information about making your website accessible to everyone, consult the World Wide Access: Accessible Web Design video and publication.
• Do video presentations used by the lab have captions? Audio descriptions?
• Are accessibility issues incorporated into mainstream web design and other technology training for students and staff?
• Is an adjustable-height table available for each type of workstation in the lab? Can the height be adjusted from a seated position?
• Do some keyboards have large-print key labels, Braille labels, or home-row key indicators to help users with visual disabilities locate keys?
• Is screen enlargement software available for users with low vision? Is a large monitor available so that a larger amount of screen can be viewed while magnified?
• Is a trackball available for those who have difficulty controlling a mouse?
• Are a wrist rest and forearm rest available for those who require extra support while typing?
• Is equipment marked with large-print and Braille labels?
• Is software available to modify keyboard response, such as sticky keys, repeat rate, and keystroke delay (perhaps by making accessibility features of operating systems readily available)?
• Is word prediction software available to reduce the number of keystrokes needed for text entry?
• Can controls on computers, printers, scanners, and other information technology be reached from a seated position?
• Are adequate work areas available for both right- and left-handed users?

A useful online interactive tool for learning about IT accessibility and for managing your lab's IT accessibility goals is the Information Technology in Education Accessibility Checklist. For more information about assistive technology, consult the Adaptive Technology videos and publications.

Check Your Understanding

Consider the following situation. When you put your course listings and schedules online, which of the following are examples of access barriers that students with disabilities may encounter? Choose a response.

1. Schedule is a graphic without equivalent alternative text.
2. Timetable does not contain clearly marked rows and headers.
3. There is poor contrast between the background and the font, or information is conveyed solely by the use of color.
4. Systems don't allow the use of keyboard functions in lieu of the mouse.
5. Online registration is the only option available to students.

Responses:

1. Schedule is a graphic without equivalent alternative text.
   Having a schedule that is a graphic without a text equivalent is a barrier because people who are blind and use screen readers will have difficulty. Screen reader software does not recognize graphics or images. Each graphic needs a text equivalent description. For more information about accessible web design and the creation of alternative text, see the World Wide Access: Accessible Web Design publication and video.
2. Timetable does not contain clearly marked rows and headers.
   A course schedule in a table format that does not contain clearly marked rows and headers is a barrier because students using screen readers cannot determine the meaning of data in the cell unless there is a row and header label.
3. There is poor contrast between the background and the font, or information is conveyed solely by the use of color.
   Poor contrast and the use of color to convey important information is a problem for students with color blindness or low vision or for users accessing information in poorly or brightly lit areas. With poor contrast, it will be difficult for users to distinguish between the background and the text. Information conveyed by color alone may be indistinguishable by users who are color-blind.
4. Systems don't allow the use of keyboard functions in lieu of the mouse.
   Applications that rely on the mouse and don't allow keyboard entry are a barrier for individuals who have limited or no use of their arms and hands and consequently are unable to use a mouse to access or enter information. They may rely on keyboard shortcuts or other alternative input devices.
5. Online registration is the only option available to students.
   Students with limited technical ability or access to technology resources may need alternative methods for registration. Be sure that students have information about how to obtain assistance in registering, as well as how to register via phone, by mail, and in person.

The content of this web page is from Equal Access: Universal Design of Computer Labs. Consult that document for the most current guidelines in a checklist format and to use as a handout for a presentation or meeting.

Additional Resources

The questions on this web page were field tested at more than twenty postsecondary institutions nationwide by members of the DO-IT Admin team. To increase the usefulness of this working document, send suggestions to sherylb@u.washington.edu.

An electronic copy of the most current version of this content can be found in the publication Equal Access: Universal Design of Computer Labs. The short video Equal Access: Computer Labs demonstrates key points summarized on this web page. A copy in DVD format can be purchased from DO-IT.

Consult the Conference Room Knowledge Base for questions and answers, case studies, and promising practices. A large collection of DO-IT publications, videos, and training materials can be found at DO-IT Publications, Videos, and Training Materials.

by Sheryl Burgstahler, Ph.D.

(Adapted from the publications Real Connections: Making Distance Learning Accessible to Everyone and Equal Access: Universal Design of Distance Learning.)

Distance learning has been around for a long time. For hundreds of years instructors have taught students across great distances via correspondence courses using printed materials. The early days of television witnessed the introduction of televised courses. Today, an instructor can videoconference with several classrooms full of students. Early online courses using electronic mail were rapidly followed by web-based instruction. Today, the lines are blurred between different types of distance learning courses as multiple modes of delivery are employed in a single course. For example, a class "library" could be a website; class discussions could take place using electronic mail; some course content could be delivered using printed materials and television; and the final activity could be a place-bound proctored exam.

Increasing access to more students is a common reason given for providing instruction in a distance learning format. However, these access arguments usually focus on people separated by distance and time and rarely include consideration of the needs of people with disabilities. In fact, the design of many distance learning courses erects barriers to the full participation of students and instructors with some types of disabilities.

Ensuring that individuals with disabilities can participate in distance learning courses can be argued on ethical grounds. Many people simply consider it to be the right thing to do. Others are more responsive to legal mandates. The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990 mandates that no otherwise qualified individuals shall, solely by reason of their disabilities, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination in public programs. The ADA does not specifically mention online courses, but the United States Department of Justice and the U.S. Department of Education's Office for Civil Rights have clarified that the ADA applies to Internet-based programs and services. Clearly, distance learning programs must make their offerings available to qualified people with disabilities.

The following paragraphs discuss access issues and present design considerations for ensuring that a course is accessible to potential instructors and students with a wide range of abilities and disabilities. The field of universal design provides a framework for this discussion.

Access Barriers

Thousands of specialized hardware and software products available today allow individuals with a wide range of abilities and disabilities to productively use computing and networking technologies. If a prerequisite for a course is Internet access, administrators and instructors can assume that any student enrolled will have access to any assistive technology required. However, assistive technology alone does not remove all access barriers. Described below are examples of access challenges in distance learning courses faced by students and instructors who have access to assistive technology.

Blindness

A student or instructor who is blind may use a computer equipped with text-to-speech software. Basically, this system reads, with a synthesized voice, whatever text appears on the screen. He can use a text-only browser to navigate the World Wide Web or simply turn off the graphics-loading feature of a multimedia web browser. He cannot interpret graphics (including photographs, drawings, and image maps) unless alternative text is provided. Printed materials, videos, televised presentations, overhead transparencies, and other visual materials also create access challenges for him. These barriers can be overcome with alternate media such as audiotapes, Braille printouts, electronic text, tactile drawings, and aural descriptions.

Other Visual Disabilities

A student or instructor who has limited vision can use special software to enlarge screen images. He may see only a small portion of a web page at a time. Consequently, he can easily become confused when web pages are cluttered and when layouts change from page to page. Standard printed materials may also be inaccessible to him; he may require large print or electronic text. Individuals who are colorblind cannot successfully navigate web pages that require the user to distinguish colors.

Specific Learning Disabilities

Some specific learning disabilities impact the ability to read, write, and/or process information. A student with a learning disability may use audiotaped books. To help her read text efficiently, she may also use a speech output or screen enlargement system similar to those used by people with visual disabilities. She may have difficulty understanding websites when the information is cluttered and when the screen layout changes from one page to the next.

Mobility Disabilities

A student or instructor with a mobility disability who cannot move his hands may use an alternative keyboard and mouse or speech input to gain access to online course materials and communication tools. Another student or instructor may be able to use standard input devices, but lack the fine motor skills required to select small buttons on the screen. If his input method is slow, a person with a mobility impairment may not be able to effectively participate in real-time "chat" communications. If any place-bound meetings are required in a distance learning course, a participant with a mobility disability may require that the location be wheelchair-accessible.

Hearing Disabilities

Most Internet resources are accessible to people with hearing disabilities because these resources do not require the ability to hear. However, when websites include audio output without providing text captioning or transcription, a student who is deaf is denied access to the information. Course videos that are not captioned are also inaccessible to this student. He may also be unable to participate in a telephone conference or videoconference unless accommodations (e.g., sign language interpreters) are provided for that part of a distance learning course.

Speech Disabilities

A student with a speech impairment may not be able to effectively participate in interactive telephone conferences or videoconferences. However, modes of participation that do not require the ability to speak, such as electronic mail, are fully accessible.

Seizure Disorders

Attention-grabbing flickers, at certain rates (typically between 2 to 55 hertz), can induce seizures for people who are susceptible to them. They should be avoided.

Universal Design

The design of a distance learning class can impact the participation of students and instructors with visual, hearing, mobility, speech, and learning disabilities. Planning for access as the course is being developed is much easier than creating accommodation strategies once a person with a disability enrolls in the course or applies to teach it. Simple steps can be taken to assure that the course is accessible to participants with a wide range of abilities and disabilities.

"Universal design" is defined by the Center for Universal Design at North Carolina State University as "the design of products and environments to be usable by all people, to the greatest extent possible, without the need for adaptation or specialized design." At this Center, a group of product developers, architects, environmental designers, and engineers established a set of principles of universal design to apply in the design of products, environments, and communication and other electronic systems. General principles include: the design is useful and marketable to people with diverse abilities; the design accommodates a wide range of individual preferences and abilities; the design communicates necessary information effectively to the user, regardless of ambient conditions or the user's sensory abilities; and the design can be used efficiently and comfortably, and with a minimum of fatigue.

When universal design principles are applied, products meet the needs of potential users with a wide variety of characteristics. Disability is just one of many characteristics that an individual might possess. Others include height, age, race, native language, ethnicity, and gender. All of the potential characteristics of participants should be considered when developing a distance learning course. Just as modern sidewalks and buildings are designed to be used by everyone, including those who use wheelchairs, distance learning designers should create learning environments that allow all potential students and instructors to fully participate.

The next sections of this publication provide examples of strategies for making distance learning courses accessible to everyone. Be sure to include a statement on all program promotional materials about how to obtain materials in alternate format and how to obtain disability-related accommodations.

On-Site Instruction

The interactive video sessions, proctored examinations, and retreats for students in some distance learning courses require place-bound meetings. In these cases, the facility should be wheelchair accessible, the furniture should be flexible enough to accommodate wheelchair-users, and accessible restrooms and parking should be available nearby. Standard disability-related accommodations, such as sign language interpreters, should be provided when requested. Instructors should speak clearly; face students when speaking to facilitate lip-reading; and read aloud and describe text and other visual materials for those who cannot see them.

Internet-based Communication

Some distance learning programs employ real-time chat communication in their courses. In this case, students communicate synchronously (at the same time), as compared to asynchronously (not necessarily at the same time). Besides providing scheduling challenges, synchronous communication is difficult or impossible for someone who cannot communicate quickly. For example, someone with a learning disability who takes a long time to compose her thoughts or someone whose input method is slow may not be fully included in the discussion. In addition, some chat software erects barriers for individuals who are blind. Instructors who choose to use chat for small group interaction should select chat software that is accessible to those using screen readers and plan for an alternate method of communication (e.g., email) when not all students in a group can fully participate using chat.

Text-based, asynchronous resources such as electronic mail, bulletin boards, and listserv distribution lists generally erect no special barriers for students with disabilities. Email communication between individual students, course administration staff, the instructor, guest speakers, and other students is accessible to all parties, regardless of disability.

Web Pages

Applying universal design principles makes web pages accessible to individuals with a wide range of disabilities. In 1999, guidelines for making web pages accessible were developed by the Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI) of the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). W3C, an industry group that was founded in 1994 to develop common protocols that enhance interoperability and guide the evolution of the web, is committed to assuring that the World Wide Web is fully accessible to people with disabilities. More recently, the United States Architectural and Transportation Barriers Compliance Board (Access Board) developed accessibility standards for web pages of Federal agencies, as mandated by Section 508 of the Rehabilitation Act Amendments of 1998. The standards provide a model for other organizations working to make their web pages accessible to the broadest audience.

There are basically two approaches for making web page content and navigation accessible. Certain types of inaccessible data and features need to be avoided or alternative methods need to be provided for carrying out the function or accessing the content provided through an inaccessible feature or format. For example, a distance learning designer can avoid using a graphic that is inaccessible to individuals who are blind, or he can create a text description of the content that is accessible to text-to-speech software. Tips for designing specific formats or features (e.g., PDF files, forms, JAVA applications, Flash content) can be found in the AccessIT Knowledge Base.

Web pages for a distance learning class should be tested with a variety of monitors, computer platforms, and web browsers, including a text-only browser, such as Lynx, or a standard browser with the graphics and sound-loading features turned off (to simulate the experiences of people with sensory disabilities). Testing to see if all functions at a website can be accessed using a keyboard alone is also a good accessibility test. Online programs (e.g., A-Prompt, Bobby, WAVE) are available to test web pages for accessibility.

Course designers using development tools, such as Blackboard™ or WebCT™, can employ product accessibility tools to create accessible courses.

Printed Materials

Students who are blind or who have specific learning disabilities that affect their ability to read may require that printed materials be converted into Braille, large print, audiotape, or electronic formats. Making the content of printed materials available in an accessible web-based format may provide the best solution for students who cannot read standard printed materials.

Video Presentations

Ideally, whenever a video or televised presentation is used in a distance learning course, captioning should be provided for those who have hearing disabilities and audio description (that describes aurally the visual content) should be provided for those who are blind. If a video publisher does not make these options available, the distance learning program should have a system in place to accommodate students who have sensory disabilities. For example, the institution could hire someone local to the student to describe the visual material to a student who is blind or to sign audio material for a student who is deaf. Real-time captioning (developed at the time of the presentation) or sign language interpreting should be provided for videoconferences when requested by participants who are deaf.

Telephone Conferences

Sometimes, online courses include telephone conferencing opportunities for discussion in small groups. This mode of communication creates scheduling challenges for everyone. It is also inaccessible to a student who is deaf. Instructors who use telephone conferencing for small group discussions should allow alternative communication (e.g., email) that is accessible to everyone in a specific group. Or, a student who is deaf might be able to participate in a telephone conference by using the Telecommunications Relay Service (TRS), where an operator types what the speakers say for the student who is deaf to view on his text telephone (TTY) and translates his printed input into speech, however this system might be too slow to allow participation in lively conversations. Another accommodation approach involves setting up a private chat room on the web. A transcriptionist types the conversation for the student who is deaf to view. The student can also type his contributions into the chat room and they can be voiced by someone in the group who is monitoring the chat room. Various options should be discussed with the student who needs an accommodation.

Benefits of Accessible Design for People without Disabilities

People without disabilities may have temporary and/or situational constraints that are similar to those imposed by disabilities. For example, people who cannot access graphics due to computer system limitations are in a similar situation as students who are blind. A noisy environment that prohibits the use of audio features imposes constraints similar to those faced by students with hearing disabilities. Those for whom English is a second language experience reading difficulties similar to those experienced by people with some types of learning disabilities. Individuals using monochrome monitors face limitations like those who are colorblind. People who need to operate a computer but whose hands are occupied with other activities face challenges similar to those who use a hands-free input method because of a disability.

Applying universal design principles assists both people with and people without disabilities. For example, using clear and simple language and navigational mechanisms on web pages facilitates use by those whose native language is not the one in which the course is taught as well as people with visual and learning disabilities. People who have turned off support for images on their browsers in order to maximize access speed benefit when multimedia features provide text alternatives for the content, as do people who are blind and those who wish to use search tools to locate specific content. Similarly, people who cannot view the screen because they must attend to other tasks benefit from text-to-speech systems used by people who are blind. Captions provided on video can assist people who work in noisy or noiseless surroundings and people for whom English is a second language along with people who have hearing disabilities. Making sure that information conveyed with color is also available without color benefits those using monochrome monitors as well as those who are colorblind. Providing multiple formats of information also addresses differences in learning styles.

Getting Started

Distance learning programs should be proactive in making distance learning courses accessible. They should not wait until someone with a disability enrolls in a course to address accessibility issues, but, rather, consider them from the start! To get started, program staff should:

• think about the wide range of abilities and disabilities potential students might have.
• in promotional publications include information on how to request accommodations and publications in alternate format.
• arrange wheelchair-accessible facilities for on-site instruction.
• make sure media can be accessed using sight or hearing alone and online content can be accessed with a keyboard alone.
• adopt and enforce accessibility standards (e.g., Section 508 standards, WAI guidelines).
• establish procedures for students with disabilities to request and receive accommodations.
• provide information about standards, training, and support to instructors and design staff.
• use the accessibility features of development tools (e.g., Blackboard™, WebCT™).
• review and update standards, procedures, and support issues periodically.

Ten Indicators of Distance Learning Program Accessibility

Based on a review of the literature, experiences creating distance learning courses that are accessible to potential students and instructors with disabilities, and work with distance learning administrators nationwide, ten indicators of accessible distance learning programs were identified. The Distance Learning Program Accessibility Indicators (DLP Accessibility Indicators) can be used as a checklist for documenting programmatic changes that lead to improved accessibility of the courses of any distance-learning program.

In an iterative process, the Indicators were shared with and refined with formative feedback from disabled student service and distance learning staff at sixteen postsecondary institutions as part of the DO-IT Admin project.

For Students and Potential Students

Distance learning programs committed to accessibility ensure that students and potential students know of the programs' commitment to accessible design, how to report inaccessible design features they discover, how to request accommodations, and how to obtain alternate formats of printed materials; the distance learning home page is accessible and all online and other course materials of distance learning courses are accessible to individuals with disabilities.

• __ DLP Accessibility Indicator 1. The distance learning home page is accessible to individuals with disabilities (e.g., it adheres to Section 508, World Wide Web Consortium or institutional accessible-design guidelines/standards).
• __ DLP Accessibility Indicator 2. A statement about the distance learning program's commitment to accessible design for all potential students, including those with disabilities, is included prominently in appropriate publications and websites along with contact information for reporting inaccessible design features.
• __ DLP Accessibility Indicator 3. A statement about how distance learning students with disabilities can request accommodations is included in appropriate publications and web pages.
• __ DLP Accessibility Indicator 4. A statement about how people can obtain alternate formats of printed materials is included in publications.
• __ DLP Accessibility Indicator 5. The online and other course materials of distance learning courses are accessible to individuals with disabilities.

For Distance Learning Designers

Distance learning programs that are committed to accessibility assure that course designers understand the program's commitment to accessibility, have access to guidelines and resources; and learn about accessibility in training provided to course designers.

• __ DLP Accessibility Indicator 6. Publications and web pages for distance learning course designers include: a) a statement of the program's commitment to accessibility, b) guidelines/standards regarding accessibility, and c) resources.
• __ DLP Accessibility Indicator 7. Accessibility issues are covered in regular course designer training.

For Distance Learning Instructors

In distance learning programs committed to accessibility, publications and Web pages for distance learning instructors include a statement of the distance learning program's commitment to accessibility, guidelines regarding accessibility, and resources; and training for instructors includes accessibility content.

• __ DLP Accessibility Indicator 8. Publications and Web pages for distance learning instructors include: a) a statement of the distance learning program's commitment to accessibility, b) guidelines/standards regarding accessibility, and c) resources.
• __ DLP Accessibility Indicator 9. Accessibility issues are covered in training sessions for instructors.

For Program Evaluators

Distance learning programs committed to accessibility have systems in place to monitor accessibility efforts and make adjustments based on evaluation results.

• __ DLP Accessibility Indicator 10. A system is in place to monitor the accessibility of courses and, based on this evaluation, the program takes actions to improve the accessibility of specific courses as well as update information and training given to potential students, current students, course designers and instructors.

For a current list of the ten indicators for accessible distance learning programs consult the publication Equal Access: Universal Design of Distance Learning.

Conclusion

Distance learning courses are designed to reach out to students from anywhere. If universal design principles are used in creating these classes, they will be accessible to any students who enroll in them and any instructors who are hired to teach them. Designed correctly, distance learning options create learning opportunities for students with a broad range of abilities and disabilities. Designed poorly, they erect new barriers to equal participation in academics and careers. Employing universal design principles can bring us closer to making learning accessible to anyone, anywhere, at any time.

Video

A short video presentation, Real Connections: Making Distance Learning Accessible to Everyone, demonstrates key points summarized in this publication. Permission is granted to reproduce DO-IT videos for educational, non-commercial purposes as long as the source is acknowledged.

The nature of artwork, design, studio, and performance activities pose unique challenges, yet also provide creative opportunities for students with a range of visual, hearing, physical and mental health, mobility, and learning disabilities. With appropriate accommodations, students with disabilities can access visual, performing, literary, media, and design arts.

Students require access to three major aspects of the arts. They need to be able to access the physical environment or location of the activity (e.g., studios, theaters, museums). They also need to access and participate in the activities (e.g., drawing, dancing, composing, filming). Finally, they need to be able to access products (e.g., video presentations, plays, musical performances). Accommodations for design and art vary greatly and depend on the individual's needs and the activity, event, or product. For example, students with hearing disabilities may need amplification, captioning, or sign language interpreters to access music, films, or live performances. Some students with mobility disabilities need accessible seating in performance halls and theaters, while others need adaptive equipment to manage tools and materials. Students with visual disabilities may need printed material such as scripts, sheet music, and literature in large print or Braille. Students are the best source of information about their specific needs.

General suggestions for instructors to make design and art classes more accessible for students with disabilities include:

• creating work environments that are wheelchair accessible (e.g., adjustable workstations, spaces that are free of clutter, tools and supplies stored within reach)
• allowing students extra time and/or assistance to set up materials
• being flexible in assignment requirements and deadlines

Accommodations for Specific Disabilities

Blindness

Students who are blind cannot see visual aids; visual, media, and design arts; music notation; demonstrations; or performances. Design and art class accommodations for students who are blind may include:

• descriptive interpreters who provide detailed descriptions of visual information
• Brailled materials (e.g., musical notation, scripts, and assignment instructions)
• extended assignment deadlines
• clear verbal descriptions of visual aids, graphics, and instructions
• raised-line drawings, tactile diagrams, or models

Health Disabilities 

Students with various health conditions may have difficulty attending class regularly. They may fatigue easily. Medication side effects may impact endurance, memory, and attention. Students with chemical sensitivities may have difficulty with some types of art supplies and materials. Design and art class accommodations for students with health disabilities may include: 

• flexible attendance requirements
• extended assignment deadlines
• alternative assignments 

Hearing Disabilities 

Students who are hard of hearing have difficulty receiving auditory information and may require amplification to hear music or voice. Students who are deaf may need to lip read or use a sign language interpreter. It is important to remember that students with hearing disabilities who use an interpreter, lip read or read from a script often find it difficult to simultaneously watch demonstrations, attend to visual details, or follow verbal descriptions. Specific design and art class accommodations for students with hearing disabilities may include: 

• sign language interpreters
• real-time captioning
• captioned video presentations
• sound amplification systems.
• preferential seating for optimal listening or lip reading
• providing essential information in written format before the assignment begins (e.g., directions, scripts)
• extra viewing time for demonstrations or visual aids and descriptions 

Learning Disabilities 

Some students with learning disabilities have difficulty processing, organizing, and remembering large amounts of information. Completing extensive projects, such as portfolios, may also be challenging due to experiencing difficulty with organization or time management. Design and art class accommodations for students with learning disabilities may include: 

• extended assignment deadlines
• extended time on exams
• adaptive computer hardware or software to assist with writing, reading, and organization 

Low Vision

Students with low vision may have difficulty seeing visual aids; visual, media, and design arts; handouts, demonstrations, and performances. Design and art class accommodations for students with low vision may include:

• documentation (e.g., plan drawings, musical notation, scripts, assignment instructions) in large print
• preferential seating for demonstrations or performances
• extended assignment deadlines
• clear verbal descriptions of visual aids, graphics, and instructions
• adequate lighting in work spaces
• large monitors and/or screen enlargers

Mobility Disabilities

Physical access to art facilities or equipment may be challenging for a student with a mobility disability. Students with limited hand use may also have difficulty handling art tools and equipment. Students may need to access some of the following art facilities and equipment: stages and dressing rooms, museums, visual art equipment, cameras, darkroom materials, easels, art supplies, drafting tables, and looms. Design and art class accommodations for students with mobility disabilities may include:

• adaptive tools and equipment
• accessible field-based learning
• alternative assignments
• assistance with material set-up and preparation (e.g., wedging clay, stretching canvas)
• a workstation for a student in a wheelchair with a work surface 30 inches from the floor, a 29-inch clearance beneath the work surface to a depth of at least 20 inches, a minimum width of 36 inches to allow leg space for the seated individual, and a clear aisle width of 42 to 48 inches
• uncluttered workspace
• adjustable workstations
• preferential seating to avoid obstacles and physical classroom barriers and that provides visual access to demonstrations
• mirrors above the instructor or enlarged screen demonstrations
• alternative workspaces such as pullout or drop-leaf shelves and counter tops, or lap-desks
• alternate storage methods (e.g., a portable Lazy Susan or a storage cabinet on casters)
• accommodations to complete assignments using a computer
• accommodations to transport large drawings or other work

Mental Health Disabilities

Students with various mental health conditions may have difficulty attending class regularly. They may fatigue easily or have difficulty completing extensive, long-term projects. Medication side effects may impact endurance, memory, and attention. Artwork accommodations for students with mental health disabilities may include:

• flexible attendance requirements
• extended assignment deadlines
• alternative assignments
• quiet work areas or meeting areas where noise and other distractions are minimized

Check Your Understanding

How could you help a student in your your design or art class, who has low vision, access a Photoshop program? Choose a response.

1. Provide screen enlargement software and a large-screen computer monitor.
2. Have the student work with a partner.
3. Use detailed verbal descriptions during instruction.
4. Suggest that the student take a different course. 

Responses:

1. Provide screen enlargement software and a large-screen computer monitor. 
   Screen enlargement software and a large-screen monitor would help the student access the software.
2. Have the student work with a partner. 
   This may be a reasonable accommodation, depending on the needs of the student and the essential course requirements. The student with a disability should be involved and participate in other aspects of the work as much as possible.
3. Use detailed verbal descriptions during instruction.
   This accommodation is important to give the student a visual orientation to the material. For example, an instruction such as, "Click on the bottom right corner and drag toward the object in the middle of the screen" rather than, "Click here" provides more direction for the student who may not be able to adequately see the monitor.
4. Suggest that the student take a different course. 
   This would not be an appropriate recommendation. The student, instructor, and disabled students services staff should work together to first determine what reasonable accommodations are available to access the course.

Some students with disabilities face challenges participating in small group discussions and other interactive activities. Specific needs vary greatly. However, some general teaching strategies that benefit all students include:

• Establish clear ground rules for discussion.
• Provide electronic supplementary course/discussion materials.
• Give clear descriptions of visual materials.
• Paraphrase questions and answers and highlight key points throughout discussions.
• Create options for electronic discussions.

Accommodations for Specific Disabilities

The following strategies can be used to facilitate participation of students with specific disabilities in discussions and other interactive group work.

Blindness

Students who are blind cannot see presenters, visual aids, printed materials, and demonstrations.

Typical accommodations that can be used in discussions and group work to maximize the participation of students with blindness are:

• recorded sessions
• Brailler or computer for note taking
• having participants state their names prior to speaking during discussions
• verbal descriptions of visual aids and demonstrations
• handouts in Braille, on tape, or in electronic format that can be read before the discussion or work group meeting

Health Disabilities

Students with some health conditions may have difficulty attending class regularly. They may fatigue easily and/or have difficulty taking notes due to fatigue or other physical disabilities. Medication side effects may impact endurance, memory, and attention.

Typical accommodations that can be used in discussions and group work to maximize participation of students with health disabilities are:

• note takers
• recorded sessions
• laptop computer for note taking
• options for electronic discussion
• flexible attendance requirements

Hearing Disabilities

Students with hearing disabilities or deafness are challenged by verbal discussions. Students with residual hearing or who use hearing aids may require amplification. Other students may need to lip read or use sign language interpreters. Certain environmental conditions may also impact a student's ability to hear or read lips effectively. For example, hearing aids may pick up extraneous background noise and interfere with the clarity of sound. Poor lighting may make it more difficult to lip read. Likewise, background lighting from a window can cast shadows on a speaker's face. Keep in mind that some students with hearing disabilities may also have speech disabilities.

Typical accommodations that can be used in discussions and group work to maximize the participation of students with hearing disabilities are:

• sign language interpreters
• real-time captioning where words are immediately transcripted and presented on a computer screen
• captioned video presentations
• assistive listening devices (ALDs) which combined with a student's personal hearing aid can augment and amplify sound in a group setting. Microphones for these devices can then be accessed by the person who is speaking
• preferential seating during the discussion for optimal listening and/or lip reading
• options for electronic discussion

Communication strategies that can facilitate access for students with hearing disabilities include:

• When speaking, face the student directly.
• When speaking, avoid obscuring lips or face with hands, books, or other objects.
• Repeat discussion questions and statements made by other students.
• Write discussion key points, questions, and answers on a white board or overhead projection system.
• Speak clearly and at a normal rate.
• If the student uses an interpreter, speak directly to the student, not the interpreter.
• Indicate who is speaking by gesturing or pointing.

Learning Disabilities

Students with learning disabilities may have difficulty processing, organizing, and remembering large amounts of spoken information. Taking effective notes may also be challenging due to difficulty with writing and/or organization. Some students may also have difficulty communicating verbally.

Typical accommodations that can be used in discussions and group work to maximize the participation of students with learning disabilities include:

• recorded sessions
• note takers
• a laptop computer in class for note taking
• options for electronic discussion via email where there is sufficient time to formulate responses

Low Vision

Individuals with low vision may have difficulty seeing visual aids, handouts, and demonstrations.

Typical accommodations that can be used in discussions and group work to maximize the participation of students with low vision are:

• note takers
• recorded class sessions
• preferential seating
• large-print handouts and visual aids

Mobility Disabilities

Physical access to the discussion location may pose a challenge for a student with a mobility disability. A student who has difficulty using their hands will have difficulty taking written notes.

Typical accommodations that can be used in discussions and group work to maximize the participation of students with mobility disabilities are:

• preferential and accessible seating
• note takers
• recorded sessions
• laptop computer for note taking

Mental Health Disabilities

Students with some mental health conditions may have difficulty attending class regularly. They may fatigue easily. Medication side effects may impact endurance, memory, and attention for learning. They may have difficulty taking notes.

Typical accommodations that can be used in discussions and group work to maximize the participation of students with mental health disabilities are:

• note takers
• recorded sessions
• laptop computer for note taking
• options for electronic discussion
• flexible attendance requirements

Speech Disabilities

Students with speech disabilities may have difficulty speaking in discussions. Some students with speech disabilities use augmentative communication. Many of these devices are computer-based and can be programmed to provide speech output.

Typical accommodations that can be used in discussions and group work to maximize the participation of students with speech disabilities are:

• adequate wait time to allow the student to speak
• options for electronic discussion

Check Your Understanding

Consider the following example. A student with a hearing disability has enrolled in your course which includes a weekly discussion section. The student has a hearing aid and speaks without difficulty. What would be the best way to ensure the student can fully participate in the interactive discussions? Choose a response.

1. Provide preferential seating near the instructor to reduce environmental distractions.
2. Use an assistive listening system with multiple microphones for the student and instructor.
3. Use a note taker during the discussion.
4. Use real-time captioning.

Responses:

1. Provide preferential seating near the instructor to reduce environmental distractions. 
   Preferential seating in a discussion section may be helpful. However, if there is a high level of student participation and interaction it may be difficult for the student with a hearing disability to follow the conversation. Assessing and adjusting environmental conditions such as lighting and background noise that may interfere with lip reading or hearing is important. Talk to the student about the best way to meet her needs. The disabled student services staff may be able to assist with this prior to the course.
2. Use an assistive listening system with multiple microphones for the student and instructor. 
   Personal and group FM systems which amplify sounds can be used successfully to clarify sounds in a group setting for some students with hearing disabilities. With these systems, there is a direct input of sound from the speaker into a microphone that is then transmitted to the student's hearing aid. A central microphone can be used when the group is small. Multiple microphones are more effective with a larger group and can be passed from person to person as they speak. Talk to the student about options that will be most effective. The disabled student services office may have FM systems available for student use.  
3. Use a note taker during the discussion.
   A note taker can provide a summary record of the discussion content. However, this strategy is not ideal because it does not enhance the active participation of the student during the group interaction if the student cannot adequately hear or lip read to follow the conversation.
4. Use real-time captioning. 
   The use of real-time captioning may be an effective accommodation in this situation. In this case, a transcriptionist types the discussion comments on computer-based transcription equipment. The speaker's words are typed into the computer and then immediately relayed to the student's laptop or projected onto a larger screen. The captioning also provides a transcript for later use. Real-time captioning tends to be less effective in small groups or interactive discussions than in lectures.

Some students with disabilities face challenges in large lectures. Needs vary greatly among individuals. Students are the best source of information about their needs.

General teaching strategies beneficial for all students include:

• outlines and other scaffolding tools
• large, bold fonts on uncluttered overhead displays
• speaking aloud all visual content presented
• course materials available in accessible electronic formats
• repeating student questions before answering them
• minimizing distractions

Accommodations for Specific Disabilities

The following strategies can be used to facilitate participation of students with specific disabilities in lectures. 

Blindness

Students who are blind cannot see visual aids, class outlines, nor demonstrations.

Typical accommodations in lectures for students who are blind include:

• recorded class sessions
• student use of a Brailler for note taking
• outlines and course materials in accessible electronic formats so that they can be converted to speech output and/or Braille
• speaking aloud all visual content presented  

Health Disabilities

Students with various health conditions may have difficulty attending class regularly. They may fatigue easily or have difficulty taking notes. Medication side effects may impact endurance, memory, and attention.

Typical accommodations in lectures for students with health disabilities include:

• note takers
• recorded class sessions
• use of a laptop computer for note taking
• flexible attendance requirements

Hearing Disabilities

Students with hearing disabilities or deafness may have difficulty understanding content presented orally. Students with residual hearing or a hearing aid may require amplification. Other students may need to lip read or use a sign language interpreter. Certain environmental conditions may also impact a student's ability to hear or read lips effectively. For example, hearing aids may pick up extraneous background noise and interfere with the clarity of sound. Poor lighting may make it more difficult to lip read. Likewise, background lighting from a window can cast shadows on a speaker's face.

Typical accommodations in lectures for students with hearing disabilities include:

• sign language interpreters
• real-time captioning
• captioned presentations
• sound amplification systems
• preferential seating for optimal listening or lip reading
• providing essential course information in written format (e.g., on visual display or handout)

Learning Disabilities

Some students with learning disabilities may have difficulty processing, organizing, and remembering large amounts of spoken information. Taking effective notes may also be challenging due to difficulty with organizational or writing skills.

Typical accommodations in lectures for students with learning disabilities include:

• note takers
• recorded class sessions
• use of a laptop computer in class for note taking

Low Vision

Students with low vision may have difficulty seeing visual aids, handouts, and demonstrations.

Typical accommodations in lectures for students with low vision include:

• note takers
• recorded class sessions
• preferential seating
• large-print handouts and visual aids
• large, bold fonts on uncluttered overhead displays
• speaking aloud all visual content presented

Mobility Disabilities

Physical access to the lecture location may be challenging for a student with a mobility disability. A student who has difficulty using her hands will have difficulty taking written notes.

Typical accommodations in lectures for students with mobility disabilities include:

• preferential, accessible seating
• note takers
• recorded class sessions
• use of a laptop computer for note taking

Mental Health Disabilities

Students with various mental health conditions may have difficulty attending class regularly. They may fatigue easily or have difficulty taking notes. Medication side effects may impact endurance, memory, and attention.

Typical accommodations in lectures for students with mental health disabilities include:

• note takers
• recorded class sessions
• use of a laptop computer for note taking
• flexible attendance requirements

Speech Disabilities

Students with speech disabilities may have difficulty asking questions in a large lecture. Some students with speech disabilities use augmentative communication systems.

Typical accommodations in lectures that can be used for students with speech disabilities include:

• opportunities to ask questions via email
• providing adequate time to allow the student to speak

Check Your Understanding

Consider the following situation. You teach a large biology class and a student with low vision has enrolled in your course. You use many visual aids and slides in your lecture. How can you make sure the student benefits from these materials? Choose a response.

1. Provide preferential seating.
2. Use clear verbal descriptions of the visual aids used throughout your lecture.
3. Provide enlarged photocopies of the slides for the student to review.
4. Provide a tactile diagram of the slides.

Responses:

1. Provide preferential seating. 
   Preferential seating may work for some students with low vision. It would be important to talk with the student and determine the best seating location and to assure that he can see the materials adequately.
2. Use clear verbal descriptions of the visual aids used throughout your lecture. 
   This is a teaching strategy that all students may benefit from. However, it may not be enough if the visual content is essential information for the course and the student can't see the material adequately.
3. Provide enlarged photocopies of the slides for the student to review. 
   The use of enlarged photocopies can help a student with low vision access slides or other images if they are unable to view them from a large screen. Copies for review during or after class can help the student adjust the image to their optimal viewing conditions. For example, they can adjust the lighting, distance and position of the image, or view them for longer periods of time. The disability services counselor can help with these arrangements if they are needed.
4. Provide a tactile diagram of the slides. 
   Tactile diagrams may be helpful for students who are blind. A student with low vision would not likely need this type of accommodation.

Laboratory experiences are essential for students in many science courses. Students with disabilities will need to have access to the physical facility, equipment, materials, safety devices and other services. Access issues for students vary considerably depending on the subject, the physical facility, and their abilities and disabilities. For example, a student who is blind will be unable to use standard measurement equipment used in a chemistry or physics laboratory. A student with limited use of her hands may have difficulty manipulating lab tools and materials. A student who uses a wheelchair may be unable to access lab tables and computers, or maneuver in a crowded laboratory. Solutions to access barriers will vary considerably among individual students and the laboratory activities. Each student is the best source of information about his needs.

General Suggestions

Working closely with a lab partner or assistant can facilitate involvement in the lab activity for some students with disabilities. For example, a student who is blind could enter observation data into the computer while his partner describes the lab findings. Or, a student with limited dexterity in her hands and fingers could dictate instructions and procedures to her partner who manipulates equipment and materials and carries out the measurement process.

Allowing the student extra time to set up a lab or complete the work can provide an effective accommodation for some students with disabilities. This may allow more time to focus on procedures and results and eliminate the stress that may result from time constraints.

To ensure safety, provide a thorough lab orientation and provide necessary adjustments to procedures, depending on the specific disability. Have a plan established that may involve moving equipment, placing the student in a specific location in the room, or involving another student as a back up in case of emergency.

Accommodations for Specific Disabilities

Blindness

Following are examples of accommodations in science labs that can be used to maximize the participation of students who are blind:

• Include tactile drawings or graphs, three-dimensional models, and hands-on learning.
• Use a glue gun to make raised line drawings.
• Make a tactile syringe by cutting notches in the plunger at 5 ml. increments.
• Make a tactile triple beam balance by filing deep notches for each gram increment. Add glue drops on either side of the balance line so that the student will know when the weights are balanced.
• Create Braille labels with Dymo Labelers.
• Identify increments of temperature on a stove using fabric paint.
• Use different textures such as sandpaper or yarn to identify drawers, cabinets, and equipment areas.
• Place staples on a meter stick to label centimeters.
• Use 3-D triangles or spheres to describe geometric shapes.
• Use Styrofoam and toothpicks or molecular kits to exemplify atoms or molecules.
• When measuring liquids, have glassware with specific measurements or make a tactile graduated cylinder.
• Use talking thermometers and calculators, light probes, and tactile timers.
• Implement auditory lab warning signals.
• Use clear verbal descriptions of demonstrations or visual aids.

Health Disabilities 

Some students may not be able to manage certain chemicals or materials. Alternative experiences should be considered in these cases. 

Hearing Disabilities 

Following are typical accommodations in science labs that can be used to maximize the participation of students who have hearing disabilities: 

• Use video presentations with captions.
• Provide comprehensive written instructions.
• Use visual lab warning signals.
• Provide preferential seating to view demonstrations and watch the instructor.
• Provide sign language interpreters, real-time captioning, or sound amplification as needed. 

Learning Disabilities 

Following are typical accommodations in science labs that can be used to maximize the participation of students who have learning disabilities: 

• Use a combination of written, verbal, and graphic instructions.
• Create opportunities to work with lab partners rather than alone.
• Extend the time allotted for set-up and process.
• Provide demonstrations and allow for practice. 

Low Vision

Following are typical accommodations in science labs that can be used to maximize the participation of students who have low vision:

• Create large-print instructions.
• Use large-print reading materials that include laboratory signs and equipment labels.
• Enlarge images by connecting monitors to microscopes.
• Use raised-line drawings or tactile models for illustrations or maps.
• Verbally describe visual aids.

Mobility Disabilities

The following are typical accommodations in science labs that can be used to maximize the participation of students who have mobility disabilities.

Basic requirements for a laboratory work station for a student in a wheelchair include:

• work surfaces 30 inches from the floor
• 29-inch clearance beneath the top to a depth of at least 20 inches, and a minimum width of 36 inches to allow leg space for the seated individual
• utility and equipment controls within easy reach for a wheelchair user
• clear aisle width of 42 to 48 inches sufficient to maneuver a wheelchair

Additional accommodations and guidelines to enhance lab accessibility for students with mobility disabilities include:

• Keep the lab layout uncluttered.
• Provide at least one adjustable-height laboratory workstation.
• Create alternative workspaces such as pullout or drop leaf shelves and counter tops, or lap-desks.
• Provide preferential seating to avoid obstacles and physical classroom barriers and ensure visual access to demonstrations.
• Use mirrors above the instructor.
• Project demonstrations on a large screen.
• Provide c-clamps for holding objects.
• Provide surgical gloves for handling wet or slippery items.
• Use beakers and other equipment with handles.
• Provide extended eyepieces so that students who use wheelchairs can use microscopes.
• Use single-action lever controls or blade-type handles in place of knobs.
• Provide flexible connections to electrical, water and gas lines.
• Create alternate lab storage methods (e.g., a portable Lazy Susan, or a storage cabinet on casters).

Mental Health Disabilities

Following are examples of accommodations that are often appropriate for students with mental health disabilities.

• Allow for extended set-up, process, and practice time.
• Use a combination of written, oral, and graphic instructions.
• Demonstrate procedures.
• Allow for frequent breaks.
• Provide preferential seating - particularly near the door.
• Decrease extraneous distracting stimuli.
• Allow student to bring a water bottle to lab.

Check Your Understanding

Suppose you have a student with a spinal cord injury who uses a wheelchair and has limited use of his hands. What accommodations would help him access your introductory chemistry lab? Choose a response.

1. Ensure that the physical facility of the lab is wheelchair accessible.
2. Provide an adjustable workstation.
3. Provide adaptive lab devices and tools.
4. Ask a lab partner to provide assistance.

Responses:

1. Ensure that the physical facility of the lab is wheelchair accessible.
   It is important to assess the wheelchair accessibility of the science lab. A student needs to access the physical facility, as well as the science lab materials and resources. Lab tables, sinks, and other workspaces should allow wheelchair access and proper workspace height. If the physical facility is not wheelchair accessible, you should contact the facilities management and disabled students services offices. A temporary solution will need to be negotiated with the student, facilities management, and disabled student services staff. Additional guidelines to enhance access to laboratory spaces and equipment include keeping the aisles wide and clear and storing materials and equipment within the reach of someone in a wheelchair.
2. Provide an adjustable workstation.
   An adjustable workstation is beneficial for students with wheelchairs as well as students of various heights. Your lab should have at least one adjustable workstation.
3. Provide adaptive lab devices and tools.
   For students with limited use of their hands, a range of adaptive devices for lab equipment or for computers are available to provide access to lab procedures that require fine motor coordination, dexterity and precision. For example, clamps can be used to stabilize objects, or software can be used for measuring and graphing. The student, instructor and disabled student services staff will need to determine which adaptive devices are appropriate as needs vary greatly among students and lab requirements.
4. Ask a lab partner to provide assistance.
   Working closely with a lab partner can provide access to a lab activity for some students with disabilities. In this case the lab partner could manipulate the equipment and materials and carry out the measurement process, while the student recorded data or observations with a computer, or gave the lab instructions. It would be important to ensure that the student with a disability has an active and essential role in any "hands on" lab activity.

Related Links

• Accessibility in the Laboratory (article)
• Accessible Science Equipment (brochure)
• Checklist for Making Science Labs Accessible (brochure)
• Equal Access: Science and Students with Sensory Disabilities (video and brochure)
• Making Science Labs Accessible to Students with Disabilities (brochure)
• Maximum Mobility and Function (article)
• The Winning Equation: Access + Attitude = Success in Math and Science (brochure)
• Working Together: Science Teachers and Students with Disabilities (brochure) 

Acknowledgement

The content of this web page was developed from Burgstahler, S. (2012). Making science labs accessible to students with disabilities. Seattle: UW.

Test taking is a challenge for most students. However for some individuals with disabilities, test taking can present specific obstacles. Student needs vary greatly, depending on the disability and type of test. Students themselves and disability service personnel are the best sources of information about strategies that work best.

General strategies for accommodating students with disabilities in testing activities include:

• alternative, quiet testing locations and distraction-free rooms
• alternate formats (e.g., oral presentations, projects, essay instead of multiple choice; written paper instead of oral presentation)
• well-organized tests with concise instructions
• alternative test formats
• extended test-taking time
• providing reading or scribe services
• use of a computer to complete tests

Accommodations for Specific Disabilities 

Blindness 

Students who are blind cannot read printed tests. 

Typical test-taking accommodations for students who are blind include: 

• readers and/or scribes
• recorded tests
• extended test-taking time
• tests in computer format to allow the conversion to speech output
• tests in Braille

Health Disabilities 

Some students with health conditions may have difficulty attending in-class exams. They may also fatigue easily. Medication side effects may impact endurance, memory, and attention. 

Typical test-taking accommodations for students with health disabilities include: 

• scribes
• exams delivered and submitted via the Internet
• extended test-taking time
• alternative time and location for test-taking

Hearing Disabilities 

Students who are hard of hearing or deaf may not have difficulty with printed tests. However, they may have difficulty when questions arise or with verbal instructions given prior to the test. An important test-taking accommodation for students with hearing disabilities is clear and detailed written instructions. Sound amplification systems, sign language interpreters, real-time captioning, or other appropriate accommodations should be provided for student interaction with the instructor or test proctor.

Learning Disabilities

Students with some types of learning disabilities have difficulty completing tests within time limits. Some test formats may pose extra challenges. For example, essay questions may be more difficult to organize and respond to in a limited amount of time than multiple choice or short answer questions. Students with learning disabilities may also be easily distracted in large group test situations. Students with specific disabilities may have difficulty reading text (e.g., Dyslexia) or completing math problems (e.g., Dyscalculia). Students with writing disabilities (e.g., Dysgraphia) may have difficulty completing essay tests.

Typical test-taking accommodations for students with learning disabilities include:

• extended test-taking time
• alternative testing locations in a quiet room with fewer distractions
• tests in alternative formats
• oral exam, project, and presentation options
• use of a computer to complete tests

Low Vision 

A student with low vision may have difficulty reading standard print on tests. Her ability to read material may also be impacted by fatigue, lighting, and glare.

Typical test-taking accommodations for students with low vision include:

• readers or scribes
• recorded tests
• extended test-taking time
• alternative test locations if lighting is problematic
• enlarged print text (by using a computer or a photocopier)
• CCTV (closed circuit television) to enlarge print and graphics

Mobility Disabilities 

Physical access to the test site must be ensured for a student with a mobility disability. A student who has difficulty using her hands will also have difficulty taking written tests.

Typical test-taking accommodations for students with mobility disabilities include:

• accessible seating
• scribes
• electronic version of the test on a computer with assistive technology if needed
• extended test-taking time

Mental Health Disabilities

Students with some mental health conditions may have difficulty with in-class exams. Medication side effects may impact endurance, memory, and attention.

Typical test-taking accommodations for students with mental health disabilities include:

• exams delivered and submitted via the Internet
• extended test-taking time
• alternative time and location for test-taking
• quiet non-distracting room for test-taking

Check Your Understanding

Consider the following situation: A student with blindness needs to take an organic chemistry exam. What accommodations would be needed to help the student complete the exam? Choose a response.

1. Provide a scribe.
2. Provide extended examination time.
3. Provide a copy of the test in Braille.
4. Give the student an oral version of the test.

Responses:

1. Provide a scribe.
   A scribe would be an appropriate accommodation. However, the student will still need to access the exam material. The scribe could serve a dual role as a reader if the exam is in standard print format. A reader would not be necessary if the exam is in Braille. Extended examination time should also be considered as an additional accommodation.
2. Provide extended examination time. 
   Extended examination time is an appropriate choice. Students who need a reader, for example, may take up to 2-3 times longer to complete the test. However, this accommodation alone does not provide access to the exam content and materials.
3. Provide a copy of the test in Braille. 
   If the student reads Braille, this is an appropriate accommodation. Adequate planning to transcribe the material in a timely manner is essential. Scientific and technical material typically requires a special form of Braille called Nemeth code Braille. A discussion with the student and disabled student services counselor would be important to organize this type of accommodation. The student may also need assistance writing the exam, therefore a scribe and/or extended exam time would be additional accommodations to consider.
4. Give the student an oral version of the test. 
   An oral version of the test is an option, but may be challenging because of the scientific content. The student will need access to all of the scientific material on the exam.

Many instructors rely heavily on written assignments as a primary means for students to communicate knowledge and understanding. Some students with disabilities face challenges with written handouts, exams, and/or assignments. Writing may be difficult to due to physical disabilities in the arms, hands, or fingers. Visual disabilities may impact a student's access to standard word processing programs and computers. Medication side effects can result in unsteady hand movements or fatigue. The writing process, which includes spelling and grammar, may also be difficult due to hearing, language, or learning disabilities. Finally, accessing journals, publications, or other library resources for written assignments may be difficult for some students with disabilities.

Assistive Technology and Other Accommodations

Computers, assistive technology, and software programs have increased the number of written communication options for students with disabilities. Adaptive computer technology has improved access to word processing programs. For example, students who are blind can use screen reading programs and speech output systems as they complete written assignments. Students with learning disabilities can benefit from access to programs that assist with support spelling, grammar, and writing organization. The Internet provides students with options to do on-line searches from home or submit assignments via e-mail, which is helpful for individuals who find travel or access to standard library resources difficult.

Despite improvements in technology, many students with disabilities need accommodations to complete written assignments to meet course requirements. General accommodations for students with various disabilities that impact writing include extending assignment deadlines, allowing alternative assignment formats, extended test-taking time, or the use of adaptive technology. Other accommodations may include considerations for grading grammar and spelling versus content when evaluating writing assignments.

The following strategies can be used to facilitate participation of students with specific disabilities in writing assignments.

Learning Disabilities

Students with learning disabilities may have difficulty organizing thoughts and ideas during the writing process. Writing mechanics such as grammar and spelling may be inconsistent, depending on the demands of the assignments. Proofreading and editing may be difficult for a student with a reading disability such as Dyslexia. Some students with learning disabilities also have challenges with their fine motor skills. Typical accommodations that can be used to facilitate maximum participation of students with learning disabilities in writing activities are:

• word processors with grammar and spell checkers
• word processors with outlining and highlighting capabilities
• word prediction software
• phonetic spelling software that can render phonetic spelling into correctly spelled words
• speech recognition products that allow students to dictate assignments or term papers as well as navigate the Internet using voice commands
• concept mapping software, which allows for visual representations of ideas and concepts and can be used as a structure for starting and organizing poetry, term papers, resumes, schedules, and computer programs

Blindness

With the availability of computers, adaptive technology, and word processing programs, students who are blind are able to complete writing assignments. They can also access publications, journals, and resources to prepare written assignments. Typical accommodations that can be used to facilitate maximum participation of students with blindness in writing activities are:

• screen reading software and speech output systems
• Braille translation software, Braille refreshable display, and a Braille embosser
• locator dots on the keys of computer keyboards
• scribes
• alternative test or assignment formats

Low Vision

Students with low vision may have difficulty writing in a standard format. Typical accommodations that can be used to facilitate maximum participation of students with low vision in written assignments include:

• large-print handouts and visual aids
• screen- and/or text-enlargers

Hearing Disabilities

Hearing disabilities do not interfere with the physical aspects of writing. However, students who use American Sign Language may have a different understanding of grammar because of differences between English and American Sign Language; English is considered a second language for many individuals who are deaf and use sign language. Typical accommodations that can be used to facilitate maximum participation of students with hearing disabilities in writing assignments include:

• Provide written examples of writing expectations (e.g., sample of a completed assignment of acceptable quality, including content and grammar/syntax).
• Grade writing and content separately.

Mobility Disabilities

Students with mobility disabilities who have difficulty using their hands, may have difficulty writing and accessing a standard mouse and keyboard for word processing programs. Fatigue may also be an issue during lengthy writing assignments or exams. And, gathering resources and publications for assignments may be time consuming. Typical accommodations that can be used to facilitate participation of students with mobility disabilities in writing assignments are:

• computer modifications to access word processing programs
• extended exam times
• extended assignment deadlines

Health Disabilities

Students with various health conditions may have difficulty attending class regularly. They may fatigue easily and/or have difficulty writing due to physical disabilities. Medication side effects may impact endurance, memory, and attention during the writing process. Gathering resources and publications for assignments may also be difficult. Typical accommodations that can be used to facilitate maximum participation of students with health disabilities in writing assignments are:

• word processing programs
• extended exam time
• extended assignment deadlines

Mental Health Disabilities

Students with various mental health conditions may have difficulty attending class regularly. They may fatigue easily and/or have difficulty taking notes. Medication side effects may impact endurance, memory, and attention for learning. Typical accommodations that can be used to facilitate maximum participation of students with mental health disabilities in discussions and group work are:

• options for electronic assignments
• note takers
• recorded class sessions
• laptop computer for note taking
• flexible attendance requirements

Check Your Understanding

Consider the following example. A student with Multiple Sclerosis has enrolled in a graduate level psychology course. There are three written exams and two research papers due in the class. She uses a word processor for writing, but needs to take a break every 30 minutes or so. What would be the best way to help this student complete the writing assignments? Choose a response.

1. Provide extended exam times and assignment deadlines.
2. Provide a scribe to do the writing assignments.
3. Provide word prediction software.
4. Allow the student to use a laptop computer for exams.

Responses:

1. Provide extended exam times and assignment deadlines.
   This would be an important option to consider. Extended exam and assignment deadlines would allow the student flexibility in her schedule. Consult with staff from the Disabled Student Services office.
    
2. Provide a scribe to do the writing assignments.
   A scribe might be helpful during the exam process, but may not be effective for writing assignments. Consult with staff from the Disabled Student Services office.
    
3. Provide word prediction software.
   Word prediction software would help decrease the typing load for the student. If the student does not have word predication software he could discuss this acquisition with the disabled students services counselor.
    
4. Allow the student to use a laptop computer for exams.
   The use of a laptop computer may be an effective accommodation in this situation.

Work-based learning experiences can help a student make career decisions, network with potential employers, select courses of study, and develop job skills relevant to future employment. Through the interaction of work and study experiences, students can enhance their academic knowledge, personal development, and professional preparation.

As future employees, students with disabilities face unique challenges. They must find a way to meet specific qualifications of a desired job, as well as demonstrate transferable skills such as communication, troubleshooting, decision-making, leadership, and problem solving. They must also determine whether or not they will need accommodations to help them succeed in their jobs. Work-based learning experiences can help students with disabilities explore different accommodations, as well as provide opportunities to practice disclosing their disabilities and requesting accommodations from employers.

Educational institutions must make reasonable accommodations for students with disabilities in work-based learning opportunities they offer. These may include internships, cooperative education, job shadowing, service learning, and independent studies. Specific work-based learning accommodations for students with disabilities will vary according to a student's needs, the job site, and the job requirements.

Some individuals with disabilities use the same accommodations at a work site that they use to complete academic work. For example, a student who is blind may need Braille, audiotapes, or an adapted computer system to access printed material. Likewise, a student with a mobility disability may need an accessible workstation and/or adaptive technology to complete computer-related job duties. For other students, new responsibilities and environments will create new challenges and potential barriers. For example, flexible attendance requirements for a student with a health disability may need additional consideration in a work-based setting. Students with learning disabilities may need to replace note takers and outlines with requests for written memos or recorded instructions to help them organize information. Transportation to and from the work site may also create unique challenges for some students with disabilities.

Successful work-based learning experiences require cooperative efforts between students, employers, instructors, staff, and support staff. There are several steps that they can take to facilitate beneficial work-based learning experiences.

Students with disabilities interested in work-based learning experiences may need to:

• register with work-based learning programs
• participate in available orientations, seminars, workshops and individual counseling sessions to enhance job search skills
• work with the work-based learning staff and special education or disabled student services counselors to determine needed accommodations

Employers need to:

• update position announcements and notify work-based learning coordinators of new positions
• work in partnership with work-based learning centers to proactively develop strategies to encourage students with disabilities to participate in the work environment
• educate staff regarding disability-related issues

Instructors need to:

• encourage students with disabilities to gain work experiences
• encourage employers to recruit students with disabilities for work opportunities

Disabled student services or special education staff need to:

• encourage students to register and participate in work-based learning programs
• be proactive in student academic and career planning: let students with disabilities know how accommodations are provided in the workplace
• help work-based learning programs recruit and accommodate students with disabilities

Check Your Understanding

Consider the following example. A business student with a hearing disability is planning a three-month marketing internship with a large company. As part of her essential job requirements, she needs to participate in various meetings and communicate daily with customers and staff. What accommodations might be needed to help this student succeed in this internship? Choose a response.

1. Provide a telephone with sound amplification.
2. Provide access to a TTY.
3. Provide access to email.
4. Use an assistive listening system with multiple microphones during meetings.
5. Use a notetaker during meetings.
6. Use real-time captioning during meetings.
7. Position individuals in a meeting to facilitate lip reading.

Responses:

1. Provide a telephone with sound amplification. 
   A telephone with sound amplification may be a reasonable accommodation for some students with hearing disabilities. Talk to the student to determine which accommodations she needs.
    
2. Provide access to a TTY. 
   Providing a TTY telephone service is an appropriate accommodation for some individuals with hearing disabilities who need to use the phone as part of their job. The student is the best source of information regarding her needs.
    
3. Provide access to email.
   Access to electronic communication provides an alternative to telephone and in-person communication and may reduce the need for accommodations in some situations. Talk to the student about how email can be an effective communication mode for some of her work and about the other accommodations she might need.
    
4. Use an assistive listening system with multiple microphones during meetings. 
   Personal and group FM systems which amplify sounds can be used successfully to clarify sounds in a group setting for some individuals who are hard of hearing. With these systems, there is a direct input of sound from the speaker into a microphone that is then transmitted to the student's hearing aid. A central microphone can be used when the group is small. Multiple microphones are more effective with a larger group and can be passed from person to person as each speaks. Talk to the student about this and other potential accommodations that might be most effective.
    
5. Use a notetaker during meetings.
   A notetaker can provide a summary of the meeting content. However, if she cannot adequately hear or lip read to follow the conversation, this strategy is not ideal because it does not support her active participation during the group interaction. Talk to the student to determine what accommodations she needs to fully participate.
    
6. Use real-time captioning during meetings. 
   Real-time captioning tends to be less effective in small groups or interactive discussions than in lectures. With real-time captioning, a transcriptionist types the discussion comments on computer-based transcription equipment. The speaker's words are typed into the computer and then immediately relayed to a laptop or projected onto a larger screen. The captioning also provides a transcript for later use. This may not be the best accommodation in small group meetings. The student, however, is the best source of information regarding her needs.
    
7. Position individuals in a meeting to facilitate lip reading. 
   Yes. This would be an appropriate accommodation if the student lip reads. The student is the best source of information regarding what accommodations are most appropriate for her.

Related Links

• It’s Your Career: Work-Based Learning Opportunities for College Students with Disabilities (brochure)
• Access to the Future: Preparing College Students with Disabilities for Careers (brochure)
• Learn and Earn: Supporting Teens (brochure)
• Learn and Earn: Tips for Teens (brochure)
• Returning from Service: College and Careers for Veterans with Disabilities (video)

The web has rapidly become the dominant Internet tool, combining hypertext and multimedia to provide a network of educational, governmental, and commercial resources. Because of the multimedia nature of the web combined with the poor design of some websites, many Internet surfers cannot access the full range of resources this revolutionary tool provides. Some visitors experience the web differently due to the following issues:

• cannot see graphics because of visual disabilities
• cannot hear audio because of hearing disabilities
• use slow Internet connections and/or equipment that cannot quickly download large files
• have difficulty navigating sites that are poorly organized with unclear directions because they have learning disabilities, speak English as a second language, or are younger than the average user

People use a variety of technologies to access the web. For example, a person who is blind may use a speech output system that reads aloud text presented on the screen. A person with a mobility disability may be unable to use a mouse and may rely on the keyboard for web browsing. To create resources that can be used by the widest spectrum of potential visitors rather than an idealized "average," web page designers should apply "universal design" principles. This requires that they consider the needs of individuals with disabilities, older persons, people for whom English is a second language, and those using outdated hardware and software.

The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990 and its 2008 amendments requires that U.S. programs and services be accessible to individuals with disabilities. ADA accessibility requirements apply to Internet resources.

Accessibility Guidelines

The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) develops and maintains the protocols used on the web to ensure interoperability to promote universal access. The W3C's Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI) has proposed guidelines for all web authors. As Tim Berners-Lee, Director of the W3C puts it:

"The power of the web is in its universality. Access by everyone regardless of disability is an essential aspect."

In 2001 the U.S. Architectural and Transportation Barriers Compliance Board (Access Board) developed accessibility requirements for web pages of federal agencies. The list of guidelines for accessibility is used by some organizations that are not required to comply.

Many organizations have more than one person who develop web content. Building web content that is consistent, accessible, and usable can be a challenge for web development teams. To ensure organization-wide development of accessible web pages, consider adopting standards or guidelines that are useful and well explained. These may be as complex as constructing a set of guidelines from scratch, or as simple as referring to the current W3C Web Content Accessibility Guidelines or Access Board standards. It is important to disseminate information about the standards to all web page developers in the organization and provide resources, training, and technical support on an ongoing basis.

Getting Started

The following suggestions will help you get started designing accessible web pages.

General Page Design

Designing a well-organized website helps visitors navigate through the information presented.

Maintain a simple, consistent page layout throughout your site.

A consistent design and look makes it easier for visitors to locate the specific information they seek. For example, a feature presented on every page, such as a standard navigation menu or logo for the site should always appear in the same place. A clear, consistent presentation will especially assist people with visual disabilities or learning disabilities who have difficulty using disorganized navigation schemes.

Keep backgrounds simple. Make sure there is enough contrast.

People with low vision or colorblindness, or those using black and white monitors, can have difficulty reading information at sites with busy backgrounds and dark colors. Some background images and colors obscure text and make reading difficult. Make sure that there is enough contrast between your text and the background of the page. Choose background, text, and link colors carefully, and always test your site by viewing it at different resolutions and color depths. For example, you can change your monitor settings to a resolution of 640x480 and 16 colors for one test, and change to 1024x768 and 24-bit color for another.

Use standard HTML.

Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) is the standard code used to create websites. HTML was designed to be a universal format outside the bounds of proprietary software and computer operating systems. The code works via tags that tell a web browser where to find and how to display information. While nonstandard tags exist, using standard HTML as defined by the W3C will ensure that your content can be accessed by all browsers used by visitors to your site. Avoid tags, features, and plug-ins that are available to only one brand or version of a browser.

Caption video and transcribe other audio.

Multimedia formats that include audio can present barriers to people with hearing disabilities as well as to people with less sophisticated computer systems. Provide captions and transcriptions for these resources so visitors who cannot hear have an alternative method for accessing the information. MAGPie from the National Center for Accessible Media (NCAM) is a free tool that allows developers to add captioning to streaming content.

Make links descriptive so that they are understood out of context.

Visitors who use screen reading software can adjust their software to read only the links on a page. For this reason, links should provide enough information when read out of context. Use a more descriptive phrase than "click here" as a link or next to a graphic used as a link. For example: <a href="https://doit-archive.parallelpublicworks.com/about.htm">Click here</a>for information about our company. will present "Click here" as the link. However, <a href="https://doit-archive.parallelpublicworks.com/about.htm"> Information about our company.</a>  will display "Information about our company." displays descriptive text as the link.

Include a note about accessibility.

Notify site visitors that you are concerned about accessibility by including a web access symbol on your page. Include a statement about accessibility and encourage them to notify you with their accessibility concerns. For example, the DO-IT home page includes the following statement:

The DO-IT pages form a living document and are regularly updated. We strive to make them universally accessible. You will notice that we minimize the use of graphics and photos, and provide descriptions of them when they are included. Video clips are open-captioned, providing access to users who can't hear the audio. Suggestions for increasing the accessibility of these pages are welcome.

Include appropriate ALT/LONGDESC attributes for graphical elements on your page.

ALT attributes work with HTML image tags to give alternative text descriptive information for graphical elements of a web page. The alternative text helps visitors understand what is on the page if they are not viewing the graphic. This could be because they are blind and using a text-based browser or a graphical browser with the image loading feature turned off. The bold text in the following example shows what an ALT attribute looks like in HTML: <img src="https://doit-archive.parallelpublicworks.com/doitlogo.large.gif" alt= "DO-IT LOGO"> 

When a sighted visitor views the page with a graphical browser, he will see a picture of the DO-IT logo. When someone who is blind visits, his voice output program will read DO-IT LOGO. This gives him a clear idea of what is on the page. In addition, any visitor coming to the site using a text-based browser will understand that there is a DO-IT logo there instead of the more ambiguous "image," the default result when no ALT attribute is used. ALT attributes should be short (less than 5 words) since browsers sometimes have difficulty displaying lengthy ALT text.

When using text to describe complex graphs or charts, or to transcribe sound files containing speech or lyrics, summarize the information next to the element, or consider using the LONGDESC attribute which provides for more detailed text than ALT. Lengthy descriptions can also be linked to an external document or immediately follow the graphic or sound element.

Provide audio description and captions or transcripts of video.

If your multimedia resources provided on your site include video, people who can not see will be unable to use this information unless it is provided in an alternative format. A text transcription provided with the video will give a visitor who cannot see, or who doesn't have the appropriate viewing software, access to the information in your video clip. Captions and transcripts also provide access to the content for those who cannot hear.

Accessibility Tests

Test your website with a variety of web browsers, and always test your pages with at least one text-based browser and with multi-media browsers with graphics and sound-loading features turned off. This way you will see your web resources from the many perspectives of your users. Also view the resources at your site using a variety of computing platforms, monitor sizes, and screen resolutions. Make sure you can access all of the features of your website with the keyboard alone, simulating the experience of web users who cannot use a mouse. Make use of accessibility testing software; they will point out elements that could be inaccessible. Then, make revisions to make your site accessible.

Check Your Understanding

Some people use Adaptive Technology with their computer to access the web. For example, how do you think a student who is blind might access a web page? Choose a response.

1. She could use a speech output system.
2. She could have a sighted person read the screen to her.
3. She could use a Braille output system.
4. She could use a Braille keyboard.

Responses:

1. She could use a speech output system. 
   A person who is blind may use a speech output system that reads aloud text presented on the screen; this system may be composed of screen reading software and a voice synthesizer.
2. She could have a sighted person read the screen to her. 
   Yes, this is a possibility. However, it is preferable to find solutions that do not require assistance from a sighted person.
3. She could use a Braille output system. 
   A person who is blind may use a refreshable braille display, which translates the text on the screen to braille. A user then reads the refreshable braille dots by gliding their fingertips over them.
4. She could use a Braille Keyboard. 
   Although special key boards exist, not all people who are blind can read braille. Some people who are blind use standard keyboards and become touch typists.

Acknowledgment

The content of this web page was adapted with permission from Burgstahler, S. and Comden, D. (2012). World Wide Access: Accessible Web Design. Seattle: UW.

Students with disabilities need access to fieldwork experiences that are part of course or program requirements. Instructors who assign these experiences need to make sure that fieldwork sites, supplementary materials, and related assignments are accessible to students with a range of hearing, visual, health, mobility, mental health, attention, and learning differences.

Fieldwork experiences may pose challenges for students with disabilities. For example, transportation to the site, as well as access to the fieldwork site or building may be problematic for a student with a mobility disability. A student who is blind may need orientation to a new environment prior to the fieldwork experience. Likewise, a student with a health disability may have difficulty with a full-time schedule or fieldwork locations that involve travel or overnight stays. Educational institutions should make reasonable accommodations for students with disabilities in all fieldwork opportunities they offer. Accommodations for students with disabilities will vary based on student needs, the fieldwork site, and the fieldwork requirements. It is important that instructors are flexible when planning fieldwork assignments.

Some individuals with disabilities will need the same accommodations at a fieldwork site that they use to complete academic work. For example, a student who is blind may need Braille, audiotapes, or an adapted computer system to access printed material. For other students, new responsibilities and environments create new challenges and potential barriers.

Instructors should review the accessibility of selected fieldwork sites and requirements early in the course planning process. Reviewing the requirements and designing activities so that they are accessible to students with a wide variety of abilities and disabilities will reduce or eliminate the need for special accommodations. Instructors and support staff can also invite students with disabilities to discuss their needs before the fieldwork to help with timely development of appropriate alternatives.

Cooperative efforts between the student, instructor, and support staff can help to ensure that fieldwork experiences are successful. Examples of fieldwork accommodations that apply to students with a variety of disabilities include:

• fieldwork sites in accessible locations
• accessible transportation to and from the fieldwork location
• extended time to complete fieldwork assignments
• flexible attendance requirements
• detailed orientation to the fieldwork site, especially for students with visual disabilities
• group fieldwork activities
• printed material in large-print, in Braille, and/or online
• sign language interpreters and/or real-time captioning
• access to computers and assistive technology as needed

Check Your Understanding

Consider the following example. A university student who uses a wheelchair for mobility needs to collect water samples during a biology field trip. It requires hiking forest trails that are not accessible for the student. What accommodations would be appropriate for this student? Choose a response.

1. Waive the field trip requirement.
2. Allow him to complete an alternative assignment.
3. Change the fieldwork site to a more accessible location.
4. Change the fieldwork assignment.
5. Have the student work with a partner to collect the field samples.

Responses:

1. Waive the field trip requirement.
   This would not be an appropriate choice as the student would likely miss essential coursework and requirements due to his inability to participate.
2. Allow him to complete an alternative assignment. 
   An alternative assignment would be appropriate if the site cannot be made accessible to the student. It is important to keep the main goals and objectives of the course in mind when deciding on substitutions. For example, in this case, is the sample collection just as important as the analysis, or is the analysis the priority?
3. Change the fieldwork site to a more accessible location.
   You could make sure a site is accessible to all students before you select it as a fieldwork site. By designing your course for students with a wide range of abilities and disabilities in mind, the need for assignment substitutions or accommodations may be reduced or eliminated.
4. Change the fieldwork assignment. 
   You are not required to alter your course or course requirements for a student with a disability. When planning your course, however, you may want to consider if the requirements could be met in a different location or with a different assignment with little or no accessibility issues, keeping in mind principles of universal design of instruction.
5. Have the student work with a partner to collect the field samples. 
   This would be an appropriate choice as long as the student with a disability remains an active participant in the process and does not miss key course content or requirements.

Autism is a neurodiversity that can affect how a person sees others and socializes with them. This can lead to a variety of issues related to communication and following social norms. The condition may also include limited and repeated patterns of behavior. To learn more about how people with autism experience the world, read Autism Perception: How People with Autism See the World or visit the National Institute of Health's webpage on autism.

Because each person with autism can have a unique mix of symptoms, it can take time to decide which accommodations work best. In addition to academic accommodations, students with autism may require accommodations for accessing postsecondary student services such as housing and residential life, tutoring and learning centers, registration, and financial aid. We recommend students explore a variety of options, which might include these options and more:

• Reduced course loads
• Testing in a private room
• Different methods of showing learning (for example, an essay instead of an oral exam)
• Private dorm residence
• Preferential registration for smaller classes

Related Links

• Invisible Disabilities and Postsecondary Education (video)

Attention Deficit Disorder is a neurological disability characterized by inattention, impulsivity, and/or hyperactivity. Individuals may be diagnosed with Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) or Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Other learning and social-emotional differences can co-occur with ADHD. Individuals with ADHD may appear easily distracted, disorganized, and lose things frequently. Employment, relationships, and other life areas may be affected by attention deficits and associated difficulties. A diagnosis of ADD or ADHD is typically made by psychoeducational or medical professionals following a comprehensive evaluation.

Attention deficits may impact a person’s behavior as a student, as a client in a student services office, or as an employee—in lectures, discussions, test taking, writing assignments, work assignments, personal relationships, or fieldwork. Some students with ADHD will need accommodations to succeed. For example, a student with ADHD might need to record lectures to review information that might be missed in written notes, or he might need a quiet room to eliminate distractions during a test. Students often are the best source of information about their needs. Instructors and supervisors should work with each student and school disability support staff to determine appropriate accommodations.

Accommodations

Accommodations for students with ADD or ADHD may include:

• extended time to complete tests or assignments
• note takers
• tutors or other organizational supports
• reduced course loads
• preferential registration for smaller classes
• preferential seating near the front of a class or meeting
• copies of class or meeting notes
• private, quiet work and testing rooms
• recorded lectures and/or books
• printed material on audiotape or in electronic format
• written directions

Related Links

• Invisible Disabilities and Postsecondary Education (video)

More Resources

• Heath Resource Center. (1993). Students with Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.
• National Attention Deficit Disorder Association
• Children and Adults with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (CHADD) 

Students who have no sight cannot access standard printed materials. Students who have been blind since birth may also have difficulty understanding verbal descriptions of visual materials and concepts.

Consider the description "This diagram of ancestral lineage looks like a tree." To someone who has never seen a tree, it may not be readily apparent that the structure discussed has several lines of ancestry that can be traced back to one central family. Students who lost their vision later in life may find it easier to understand such verbal descriptions. Additionally, directions and demonstrations based on color differences may be difficult to follow for students with blindness. During demonstrations, clear, concise narration of the basic points being represented in visual aids is important. This technique benefits other students as well. The assistance of a sighted person may be required in order for the student who is blind to gain access to visual content.

Ready access to the content of printed materials on computer or website can allow a blind student, who has access to assistive technology, to read text aloud and/or produce it in Braille. Some materials may need to be transferred to audiotape or embossed in Braille. Since it may take weeks or even months to create or procure these materials, it is essential that campus service staff select and prepare these materials well before they are needed. School services for students with disabilities typically coordinates Braille, electronic, and audiotape production in collaboration with staff, instructors and the student. They may also be able to locate or create tactile models and raised-line drawings of graphic images.

Computers with optical character readers, speech output, Braille screen displays, and Braille printers allow students who are blind to access electronic resources. The disabled student services office and/or computing services staff on your campus can be consulted when addressing computer access issues.

Web pages should be designed so that they are accessible to those using Braille and speech output systems. Your webmaster should be knowledgeable about accessible design of web pages.

Accommodations

Typical accommodations for students who are blind are:

• audiorecorded, brailled, or electronic-formatted notes, handouts, and texts
• verbal descriptions of visual content
• raised-line drawings and tactile models of graphic materials
• braille equipment labels
• auditory emergency warning signals
• adaptive lab equipment (e.g., talking thermometers and calculators, light probes, tactile timers)
• computers with optical character readers, speech output, Braille screen displays and embossed output

Check Your Understanding

Let's consider an example. How could a student who is blind access a campus map to understand the campus layout? Choose a response.

1. A sighted person could describe the map to her.
2. She could use a map created in Braille.
3. A sign language interpreter could translate the content for her.
4. She could use a raised-line drawing.

Responses:

1. A sighted person could describe the map to her. 
   Having a sighted person describe the size and layout of the buildings and other landmarks on the map is an option. Office staff might do this, or the student can contact the disabled student services office on campus for assistance.
2. She could use a map created in Braille. 
   Braille output systems cannot create drawings. However, if the content of the map was described in text format electronically, for example, in an email message or on the World Wide Web, the text could be printed in Braille so that the student would be able to access the information directly.
3. A sign language interpreter could translate the content for her. 
   Sign language interpreters translate content for individuals who are deaf. However, if this student is deaf and blind, a sign language interpreter could describe the information tactilely (by using hand signs within the student's hands).
4. She could use a raised-line drawing. 
   A raised line drawing, where the content of the graphic is presented in a form that can be felt, is an option for providing access to a map for a student who is blind. The labels might be presented on the map in Braille. Typically, the disabled student services office on campus coordinates the creation of raised line drawings.

For frequently asked questions, case studies, and promising practices, consult the searchable Knowledge Base.

Related Links

• Working Together: Science Teachers and Students with Sensory Impairments (video)
• Working Together: Computers and People with Sensory Impairments (brochure)
• Accessible Website Design
• Universal Design of Instruction (UDI): Definitions, Principles, Guidelines, and Examples (brochure)

For some students with low vision or partial sight, standard written materials are too small to read and small objects are difficult to see. Other students may see objects only within a specific field of vision, or see an image with sections missing. Text or objects may appear blurry.

Learning via a visual medium may take longer and may be more fatiguing for people who have low vision. Some people with low vision may be able to read enlarged print for a long time period, while others may only be able to tolerate reading for a short time and require readers or audiotaped material.

Visual abilities may also vary in different situations. For example, reduced light or strong glares may affect visual abilities during different times of day or in different rooms.

Students with low vision may face challenges in locating large-print materials, getting around in an unfamiliar setting, finding transportation, hiring readers for library work, researching for written assignments, as well as getting electronic recorded books on time.

Accommodations

Typical accommodations for students with low vision include

• large-print reading materials (e.g., books, handouts, signs, and equipment labels). Large print is typically 16 to 18 point bold type, depending on the typeface used
• front-row or preferential classroom seating in well-lit areas with full view of the presenter and visual aids
• assignments in electronic formats
• computers with screen and text enlargers, optical character readers (which convert print to electronic format), or speech output
• the use of readers or scribes for exams
• recorded presentations
• laptop computers for note taking
• extended time for exams and assignments
• verbal descriptions of visual aides
• monitors connected to microscopes to enlarge images

Examples of accommodations for laboratories for students with low vision include

• large-print instructions
• large-print laboratory signs and equipment labels
• enlarged images through connecting TV monitors to microscopes
• raised line drawings or tactile models for illustrations

Check Your Understanding

Let's consider an example. A student with low vision visited the career center and announced that he will need materials in large print and access to the online database of job listings. What should you do? Choose a response.

1. Tell him that it takes several weeks to accommodate his needs and, therefore, he should come back next quarter?
2. Prepare large-print versions of printed materials?
3. Meet with the student and ask him what previous accommodations have been helpful?
4. Provide the publications in standard print and ask the student to use a closed-circuit television in the library nearby?

Responses:

1. Tell him that it takes several weeks to accommodate his needs and, therefore, he should come back next quarter? 
   No. You are required by law to provide reasonable accommodations in a timely manner for students who are requesting your services. You should find a more timely solution.
2. Prepare large-print versions of printed materials? 
   Although this may be a reasonable accommodation, the student is your best resource for determining what accommodations are appropriate. Connect with him and, perhaps, the disabled student services office to determine exactly what is needed.
3. Meet with the student and ask him what previous accommodations have been helpful? 
   Yes. You may wish to set up a meeting the student and with disabled student services office staff to facilitate open communication regarding reasonable and effective accommodations.
4. Provide the publications in standard print and ask the student to use a closed circuit television in the library nearby? 
   Although this may be a reasonable accommodation, the student is your best resource for determining what accommodations are appropriate. Connect with him and, perhaps, the disabled student services office to determine exactly what is needed.

Related Links

• Working Together: People with Disabilities and Computer Technology (brochure)
• Working Together: Computers and People with Sensory Impairments (brochure)
• Equal Access: Science and Students with Sensory Impairments (brochure)

Further Ideas for Blind and Low Vision Needs

• Request and encourage student input on how to best accommodate the student's learning needs.
• Consider the position, lighting, and seating needs of the student during presentations or when using text, manipulatives, transparencies or other projected images.
• Provide large-print lecture notes, handouts, and worksheets.
• Orient the student to the classroom (dimensions, exits, furniture arrangement, hazards) initially and whenever a change occurs.
• To find talking calculators, consult the National Federation of the Blind Independence Market Online.
• United States maps in large print are available from the American Printing House for the Blind.
• Rulers, protractors, and other measurement tools are available in tactile and large-print format from the American Printing House for the Blind. Additional measurement devices can be found at AssisTech.
• Give clear verbal descriptions of visual aids including video and printed content used throughout your presentation.
• Use a scanner to create an electronic version of images, charts, or maps, and display them in a larger format on a computer monitor, or use an LCD projector.
• Provide class assignments ahead of time in electronic format. Avoid last-minute additions to assignments.
• Consider the needs of students with disabilities during lab orientation and lab safety meetings.
• Assign group activities in which all students take responsibility and contribute according to their abilities.
• Use multiple formats—oral, written, visual, tactile, electronic—for instruction and demonstrations.
• Consider computer accommodations for writing activities. Provide a document format that can be edited electronically by the student, such as an accessible PDF file, a Word document, or a plain text document.
• Consult the video presentation and publication Working Together: Computers and People with Sensory Impairments.

Functional hearing loss ranges from mild to profound. Often, people who have very little or no functional hearing refer to themselves as "deaf." Those with milder hearing loss may label themselves as "hard of hearing." When these two groups are combined, they are often referred to as individuals with "hearing disabilities,” with "hearing loss,” or who are "hearing disabled.” When referring to the Deaf culture, "Deaf" is capitalized.

Accommodations for students who are deaf or hard of hearing can be classified as "visual" and "aural." Visual accommodations rely on a person's sight; aural accommodations rely on a person's hearing abilities. Visual accommodations include sign language interpreters, lip reading, and captioning. Aural accommodations include amplification devices such as FM systems.

Hard of Hearing

Some students who are hard of hearing may hear only specific frequencies or sounds within a certain volume range. They may rely heavily upon hearing aids and lip reading. Some students who are hard of hearing may never learn sign language. Students who are hard of hearing may have speech disabilities as a result of their inability to hear their own voices clearly.

Being deaf or hard of hearing can affect students in several ways. They may have difficulty following lectures in large halls, particularly if the acoustics cause echoes or if the speaker talks quietly, rapidly, or unclearly. People who have hearing disabilities may find it difficult to simultaneously watch demonstrations and follow verbal descriptions, particularly if they are watching a sign language interpreter, a captioning screen, or a speaker's lips. Small group discussions may also be difficult to follow or participate in, particularly if the discussion is fast-paced and unmoderated, since there is often lag time between a speaker's comments and interpretation.

Students who are hard of hearing may use hearing aids. Students who use hearing aids will likely benefit from amplification in other forms such as assistive listening devices (ALDs) like hearing aid compatible telephones, personal neck loops, and audio induction loop assistive listening systems. Some students use FM amplification systems which require the presenter to wear a small microphone to transmit amplified sound to the student.

Deafness

Students who are deaf may have little or no speech depending on the degree of the hearing loss and the age of onset. They will often communicate through a sign language interpreter. American Sign Language (ASL) is widely used and has its own grammar and word order. Other students may use manual English (or signed English), which is sign language in English word order. A certified interpreter is used for translation into either language. Students who are deaf may also benefit from real-time captioning, where spoken text is typed and projected onto a screen.

It is important to remember that a student who is using an interpreter, who is lip reading, or who is reading real-time captioning cannot simultaneously look down at written materials or take notes. Describing written or projected text is therefore helpful to this student. Handouts that can be read before or after class or other presentation are useful.

Accommodations

Examples of accommodations for students who have hearing disabilities include:

• interpreters
• sound amplification systems
• note takers
• real-time captioning
• email for faculty-student meetings and class discussions
• visual warning systems for lab emergencies
• changing computer auditory signals to flash changes
• captioned video presentations

There are also several ways you can direct your speaking style and adjust the "pace" of instruction to make information more accessible to a student with a hearing disability.

• When speaking, make sure the student can see your face and avoid unnecessary pacing and moving.
• When speaking, avoid obscuring your lips or face with hands, books, or other materials.
• Repeat discussion questions and statements made by other students.
• Write discussion questions/answers on a whiteboard or overhead projector.
• Speak clearly and at a normal rate.
• Use visual aids with few words and large images and fonts.
• Provide written outlines, assignments, instructions, and demonstration summaries and distribute them before the class or other presentation when possible.

Check Your Understanding

Consider the following example as you think about accommodating a student with a hearing disability in your program. Suppose you use a video in a campus event. How would you accommodate a student who is hearing impaired? Choose a response.

1. Have the videos captioned.
2. Provide a sign language interpreter.
3. Tell the student that watching the video is not that important.
4. Provide the student with a transcript of the content to read.

Responses:

1. Have the videos captioned. 
   It is best if videos are captioned for hearing disabled students. Check with the publisher to see if this option is available. If not, encourage them to have the tapes captioned for future use. This may take time but demanding that publishers provide their products in accessible formats is the best long-term solution.
2. Provide a sign language interpreter. 
   This may be a reasonable option. However, it may be difficult for the student to watch the interpreter as well as glean the important visual content from the video. The interpreter should stand close to the projected screen. Be sure that there is adequate lighting so that the student can follow the interpretation. Allow the student to choose a suitable seating location.
3. Tell the student that watching the video is not that important. 
   It is not reasonable to waive the requirement to view videos that present essential information. If the video presentation is not important then provide it as an option for all students, rather than make an exception only for the deaf student.
4. Provide the student with a transcript of the content to read.
   It will be difficult for the student to read the script as well as glean the important visual content from the video. If this option is used, give the student the transcription to read before the video is presented. Be sure the transcript clearly reflects the visual content as well as the spoken words in the presentation.

Related Links

Working Together: Computers and People with Sensory Impairments (brochure)

There is a range of medical diagnoses and subsequent health problems that can have a temporary or chronic impact on a student's academic performance. Common diagnoses include arthritis, cancer, multiple sclerosis, asthma, AIDS, and heart disease. Unless the condition is neurological in nature, health disabilities are not likely to directly affect learning. However, the secondary effects of illness and the side effects of medications can have a significant impact on memory, attention, strength, endurance, and energy.

Health-related disabilities can result in a range of academic challenges for a student. Problems may include missing classes for unpredictable and prolonged time periods and difficulties attending classes full-time or on a daily basis. Health problems may also interfere with the physical skills needed to complete laboratory, computer, or writing assignments. Individuals with arthritis, for example, may have difficulty writing due to pain or differing joint functions, making it a challenge for them to meet the writing requirements for some classes. Students with multiple sclerosis may not be able to manipulate small laboratory equipment or complete tasks that require precise measuring, graphing, or drawing. Prolonged sitting may pose challenges for an individual with chronic pain or back problems. Illness or injury may result in changes in mobility ability that make it necessary to use wheelchairs or scooters. Some students must avoid specific activities that trigger undesirable reactions. For example, students with asthma may need to avoid specific inhalants in a science lab.

Accommodations

Flexibility plays a key role in supporting the success of students with health disabilities as many health conditions by nature are unpredictable. The provision of course outlines and task instructions with clear and well-organized information regarding readings, materials, assignments, and exams can help the student plan, organize, and prioritize his course requirements. Posting information on the web is another way for a student to acquire important information without the need to be physically present. Prior knowledge of deadlines and exams may help the student plan doctor appointments and/or medical procedures around important dates.

Computer-based instruction, distance learning, and other options that minimize travel and classroom-based instruction provide feasible alternatives for students with illnesses that make regular class attendance difficult.

Examples of typical accommodations for students who have health disabilities include:

• note takers
• recorded class sessions or meetings
• flexible attendance requirements
• extended exam time
• alternative testing arrangements
• assignments available in electronic format
• the use of electronic mail for supervisor- and instructor-student meetings and for class or small group discussions
• web-based or email distribution of course materials, lecture notes, and other documents
• environments that minimize fatigue and injury
• an ergonomic workstation with adjustable keyboard trays, monitor risers, glare guards, foot rests, adjustable chairs, and/or anti-fatigue matting
• speech recognition computer input devices, ergonomic keyboards, one-handed keyboards, expanded keyboards, or miniature keyboards

When health conditions result in permanent or temporary mobility disabilities, accommodations for students with mobility disabilities may be appropriate.

Check Your Understanding

Consider the following example. A key part of your student work in your campus services office involves weekly meetings of all student employees. How can you accommodate a student with a health disability who misses meetings frequently and unpredictably for medical reasons? Choose a response.

1. Dismiss the student from the position because of the importance of collaborative work.
2. Provide a forum for an electronic discussion.
3. Audio record each meeting the student misses.
4. Use a note taker.

Responses:

1. Dismiss the student from the position because of the importance of collaborative work.
   Efforts should be made to accommodate the student before this option is considered. Discuss alternatives with the student and the campus disabled student services office or the human resources office.
2. Provide a forum for an electronic discussion.
   Electronic discussions may provide a good option if all participants have access to the necessary technology. Students could discuss topics or issues via email or online.
3. Audio record each meeting the student misses.
   If this accommodation is determined appropriate, be sure to work out the logistics of getting recordings to the student in a timely manner. The quality of the recording would also need to be assured (e.g., have meeting participants speak directly into the microphone, limiting background noise).
4. Use a note taker.
   Although a note taker can provide a written summary, much of the essence, flow, and other important details of a meeting may be missed.

Students with specific learning disabilities have average to above average intelligence but may have difficulties acquiring and/or demonstrating knowledge and understanding content. This results in lower achievement for age and ability level, resulting in a significant discrepancy between achievement and intellectual ability.

Definitions

According to the National Joint Committee for Learning Disabilities, learning disabilities are a heterogeneous group of disorders manifested by significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, writing, reasoning or mathematical abilities. The specific causes of learning disabilities are not fully understood; however, these disorders are presumably related to central nervous system dysfunction. The effects of a learning disability are manifested differently for each individual and can range from mild to severe. Learning disabilities may also be present with other disabilities such as mobility or sensory disabilities. Types of learning disabilities include:

• Dysgraphia. An individual with dysgraphia has a difficult time with the physical task of forming letters and words using a pen and paper and has difficulty producing legible handwriting.
   
• Dyscalculia. A person with Dyscalculia has difficulty understanding and using math concepts and symbols.
   
• Dyslexia. An individual with dyslexia may mix up letters within words and sentences while reading. He may have difficulty spelling words correctly while writing. Letter reversals are common. Some individuals with dyslexia have a difficult time with navigating and routefinding tasks as they are easily confused by directions and spatial information such as left and right.
   
• Dyspraxia. A person with dyspraxia may mix up words and sentences while talking. There is often a discrepancy between language comprehension and language production.
   
• Non-verbal Learning Disorder. Poor motor coordination, visual-spatial organization and/or a lack of social skills may characterize non-verbal learning disorders.

For a student with a learning disability, auditory, visual, or tactile information can become jumbled at any point during transmission, receipt, processing, and/or re-transmission. For example, it may take longer for some students who have learning disabilities to process written information. Lengthy reading or writing assignments and tests may therefore be difficult to complete in a standard amount of time. This may be due to difficulty distinguishing numerals or letters because they appear jumbled or reversed. Inconsistencies between knowledge and test scores are also common.

Some students who have learning disabilities may be able to organize and communicate their thoughts in a one-to-one conversation but find it difficult to articulate the same ideas in a noisy classroom. Other students may experience difficulties with specific processes or subject areas such as calculating mathematics problems, reading, or understanding language. People with learning disabilities may have difficulty spelling and subsequently have difficulty creating or editing text or otherwise communicating in writing. Difficulties with attention, organization, time management, and prioritizing tasks are also common.

Accommodations

Examples of accommodations for students who have learning disabilities include:

• note takers
• recorded class sessions
• extended exam time and a quiet testing location
• visual, aural, and tactile demonstrations incorporated into instruction
• concise course, lecture, and presentation outlines
• publications in large print
• books on tape and e-books
• alternative evaluation methods (e.g., portfolio, oral or video presentations)
• detailed printed or recorded project descriptions or instructions
• reinforcing directions verbally
• breaking large amounts of information or instructions into smaller segments

Computers can be adapted to assist students with learning disabilities. Students with learning disabilities might find these accommodations useful:

• computers equipped with software that highlights and reads aloud text presented on the screen
• word processing software that includes electronic spelling and grammar checkers, software with highlighting capabilities, and word prediction
• screen- and text-enlargement software

Check Your Understanding

Imagine that a student with Dyslexia who has difficulty reading is hired to work in a campus service office. What accommodations might be effective to help this student succeed in this job? Choose a response.

1. A computer with a scanner
2. Audio recorded meetings
3. Audio books
4. Written materials provided in electronic format

Responses:

1. A computer with a scanner 
   A computer with a scanner and optical character recognition (OCR) and reading software can convert scanned text into speech output. This option may be effective for a student with a learning disability. The student would need to have access to the software and hardware, which may need to be arranged through disability support services or computer lab staff.
2. Audio recorded meetings 
   Audio recorded meetings could be helpful for someone who has difficulty taking notes. However, this accommodation would not help with reading requirements for the position.
3. Audio books
   Audio books are an appropriate option for some students with reading disabilities. Campus disabled student services staff may help coordinate this service. Ample notice of reading material should be given in order for the student to make the request and receive the books in a timely manner.
4. Written materials provided in electronic format 
   If the student has access to a computer with speech output, the computer can read electronic materials to the student. A computer with optical character recognition software and a scanner can convert printed text to electronic text that can also be read aloud by the computer. The campus disabled student support staff or computer lab staff can assist with this accommodation.

Related Links

• Working Together: Computers and People with Learning Disabilities (brochure)
• Invisible Disabilities and Postsecondary Education (video)
• Academic Accommodations for Students with Learning Disabilities (brochure)

Multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS) is a disorder triggered by exposure to chemicals in the environment. Exposure can occur through the air, food, water, or skin contact. Like allergies, symptoms tend to come and go with various exposures, although some people's reactions may be delayed.

Symptoms typically occur in more than one organ system in the body, such as the nervous system and the lungs. MCS typically impairs many bodily functions including the nervous system and digestion. MCS also affects the overall health and well being of those with the disorder. Each individual affected by MCS has a unique set of health problems. Some symptoms of MCS that could impact performance in courses and other college activities include headaches, asthma or breathing problems, memory loss, fatigue, and depression.

Students with MCS may experience difficulties with regular attendance and completing work assignments. Tasks that involve the use of, or exposure to, various chemicals such as those used science labs or artwork may be particularly difficult to complete. Examples of accommodations for students with MCS include flexible attendance due to frequent illness, or alternatives to assignments that involve irritating chemicals or materials. Students are the best sources of information about their needs. Supervisors should work with the student and disability service staff or human resources staff to determine the necessary accommodations for each student.

Accommodations

Accommodations for students with multiple chemical sensitivity may include:

• Preferential seating near windows that open.
• Providing a well-ventilated space that is free of pollutants such as tobacco smoke, pesticides, toxic and fragrant-laden cleaning products, deodorizers, and exhaust fumes.
• Flexible attendance requirements.
• Attention to chemicals in laboratory work and artwork.
• Alternative assignments.

Related Links

Invisible Disabilities and Postsecondary Education (video)

More Resources

General Information on Multiple Chemical Sensitivity

Mental health disabilities range from mild depression to chronic disorders such as schizophrenia or bipolar disorder. Negative stereotypes and the fact that these disabilities are typically "invisible" further complicate making accommodations for students with these disabilities.

Students with mental health disabilities can be affected in several ways. They may be more susceptible to the common stressors of college life, including academic demands, interpersonal relationships, and living alone or away from home for the first time. Students may have particular problems receiving, processing, and recalling information during times of stress.

Side effects from medication may also impact attention, memory, alertness, and activity level. The episodic and unpredictable onset and recurrence of illness can also interrupt the educational process as well as performance in student employment.

Individuals may be treated with a combination of medication, counseling, and behavioral therapy. Often, there are a variety of mental health support services available on campus. Students may need to build time into their schedule for therapy and/or supportive services.

Accommodations

Accommodations for students who have mental health disabilities include:

• note takers
• early notification of deadlines for projects, exams, and assignments
• flexible attendance requirements
• encouraging and validating academic and work environments
• availability of a quiet work or testing area
• materials available in electronic format
• web page or email distribution of course materials and lecture notes

Check Your Understanding

Suppose you have a disruptive student in your campus service office who has a history of mental health problems. What should you do? Choose a response.

1. Discuss the problem with the student in the service area.
2. Lower your behavioral standards because the individual has a disability.
3. Discuss the behavior standards privately.
4. Inform the student of behavioral expectations.
5. Obtain advice from the disabled student services office.

Responses:

1. Discuss the problem with the student in the service area.
   Keep the conversation confidential. Discuss the issue and behaviors with the student in private.
2. Lower your behavioral standards because the individual has a disability. 
   No. Do not lower your behavioral standards.
3. Discuss the behavior standards privately.
   Yes. Schedule a private meeting.
4. Inform the student of behavioral expectations. 
   Yes. Clearly identify parameters of your office behavioral expectations.
5. Obtain advice from the disabled student services office. 
   Yes. Gaining advice, guidance, and support is helpful. Staff in this office have experience with students who have various types of disabilities and will be able to suggest appropriate strategies for dealing with this situation.

Many types of orthopedic or neuromuscular disabilities can impact mobility. These include but are not limited to amputation, paralysis, cerebral palsy, stroke, multiple sclerosis, muscular dystrophy, arthritis, and spinal cord injury. Mobility disabilities range from lower body disabilities, which may require use of canes, walkers, or wheelchairs, to upper body disabilities that may include limited or no use of the upper extremities and hands.

Mobility disabilities can be permanent or temporary. A broken bone or surgical procedure can temporarily impact a student's ability to walk independently and travel between classroom buildings in a timely manner. Likewise, some students may be ambulatory with a walker for short distances within a classroom, but may need a wheelchair or scooter for longer distances.

Mobility disabilities can impact students in several ways. Some students may take longer to get from one class to another, enter buildings, or maneuver in small spaces. In some cases physical barriers may inhibit entry into a building or room. Accessible transportation may also be required for students to get to fieldwork sites.

A mobility disability may impact, to varying degrees, a student's ability to manipulate objects, turn pages, write with a pen or pencil, type at a keyboard, and/or retrieve research materials. Medical conditions such as Arthritis or repetitive stress injuries can impact fine motor abilities and decrease endurance for longer assignments. A student's physical abilities may also vary from day to day.

Accommodations

Examples of accommodations for students with mobility disabilities include:

• accessible locations for classrooms, labs, work sites, and field trips
• wide aisles and uncluttered work areas
• adjustable height and tilt tables
• all equipment located within reach
• note takers, scribes, and lab assistants
• group lab or work assignments
• extended exam time or alternative testing arrangements
• computers with speech input, Morse code, and alternative keyboards
• access to disability parking spaces, wheelchair ramps, curb cuts, and elevators
• course and program materials available in electronic format
• When speaking with a student in a wheelchair for more than a few minutes, sit down or move back to create a more comfortable angle for conversation.

Check Your Understanding

Suppose you have hired a student who cannot write with her hands. What are some things she might reasonably request to facilitate her employment? Specifically, which of the following accommodations do you think are reasonable to support her on the job? Choose a response.

1. Allow her to use a computer.
2. Use lower standards to evaluate her work because of her writing difficulties.
3. Send notes to her via email or post online.
4. Tell another student to take notes for her.
5. Allow her to record lectures and meetings.

Responses:

1. Allow her to use a computer.
   Using a computer might be helpful to this student. Many adaptive computer products allow hands-free computing.
2. Use lower standards to evaluate her work because of her writing difficulties.
   Do not lower your standards. An accommodation should allow a student to perform the essential work functions of a job, not waive them. However, be creative and resourceful in helping the student maximize productivity.
3. Send notes to her via email or post online.
   The student may benefit from receiving notes and handouts in electronic form. You might want to provide this option to all staff.
4. Tell another student to take notes for her.
   It is essential that you protect the individual's privacy. Consult with the student to determine if this is the best option for accommodation.
5. Allow her to record lectures and meetings.
   The student may request that she be allowed to record meetings. If you have concerns about having your lectures and meetings recorded, be sure to discuss them with your campus disabled student services staff or human resources department staff.

Related Links

Working Together: Computers and People with Mobility Impairments (video)